Holiday Destinations - Europe

Albania  officially known as the Republic of Albania (Albanian: Republika e Shqipërisë, pronounced [??pu'blika ? ?cip?'?i?s]; Gheg Albanian: Republika e Shqipnísë), is a country in Southeast Europe, in the Balkans region. It is bordered by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo[a] to the northeast, the Republic of Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south and southeast. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea to the west, and on the Ionian Sea to the southwest. It is less than 72 km (45 mi) from Italy, across the Strait of Otranto which links the Adriatic Sea to the Ionian Sea. Albania is a member of the UN, NATO, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Council of Europe, World Trade Organisation, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and one of the founding members of the Union for the Mediterranean. Albania has been a potential candidate for accession to the European Union since January 2003, and it formally applied for EU membership on 28 April 2009.

Albania is a parliamentary democracy with a transition economy. The Albanian capital, Tirana, is home to approximately 600,000 of the country's 3,000,000 people. Free-market reforms have opened the country to foreign investment, especially in the development of energy and transportation infrastructure. Albania was chosen as the top country in Lonely Planet's list of ten top countries to visit for 2011.


Albania is the Medieval Latin name of the country which is called Shqipëri by its people. In Medieval Greek, the country's name is Albania (Greek: ??ßa??a) besides variants Albanitia, Arbanitia.

The name may be derived from the Illyrian tribe of the Albani recorded by Ptolemy, the geographer and astronomer from Alexandria who drafted a map in 150 AD[16] that shows the city of Albanopolis (located northeast of Durrës).

The name may have a continuation in the name of a medieval settlement called Albanon and Arbanon, although it is not certain this was the same place.[18] In his History written in 1079–1080, Byzantine historian Michael Attaliates was the first to refer to Albanoi as having taken part in a revolt against Constantinople in 1043 and to the Arbanitai as subjects of the Duke of Dyrrachium.[19] During the Middle Ages, the Albanians called their country Arbër or Arbën and referred to themselves as Arbëresh or Arbnesh.

As early as the 16th century the placename Shqipëria and the ethnic demonym Shqiptarë gradually replaced Arbëria and Arbëresh. While the two terms are popularly interpreted as "Land of the Eagles" and "Children of the Eagles", they derive from the adverb shqip, which means "understanding each-other".

Under the Ottoman Empire Albania was referred to officially as Arnavutluk and its inhabitants as Arnauts. The word is considered to be a metathesis from the word Arvanite, which was the Medieval Greek name for the Albanians.

The history of Albania emerged from the prehistoric stage from the 4th century BC, with early records of Illyria in Greco-Roman historiography. The modern territory of Albania has no counterpart in antiquity, comprising parts of the Roman provinces of Dalmatia (southern Illyricum), Macedonia (particularly Epirus Nova), and Moesia Superior. The territory remained under Roman (Byzantine) control until the Slavic migrations of the 7th century, and was integrated into the Bulgarian Empire in the 9th century.

The territorial nucleus of the Albanian state formed in the Middle Ages, as the Principality of Arbër and the Kingdom of Albania. The first records of the Albanian people as a distinct ethnicity also date to this period. In 15th century there was a series of confrontations between Albanians led by Scanderbeg and the advancing Ottoman Empire. Soon after the death of Scanderbeg the organized resistance ceased and the country became part of Ottoman Empire. It remained under Ottoman control as part of the Rumelia province until 1912, when the first independent Albanian state was declared. The formation of an Albanian national consciousness dates to the latter 19th century and is part of the larger phenomenon of rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire. A short-lived monarchy (1914–1925) was succeeded by an even shorter-lived first Albanian Republic (1925–1928), to be replaced by another monarchy (1928–1939), which was annexed by Fascist Italy during World War II. After the collapse of the Axis powers, Albania became a communist state, the Socialist People's Republic of Albania, which was dominated by Enver Hoxha (d. 1985). Hoxha's political heir Ramiz Alia oversaw the disintegration of the "Hoxhaist" state during the wider collapse of the Eastern Bloc in the later 1980s.

The communist regime collapsed in 1990, and the Republic of Albania was founded in 1991. The old communist party was routed in the elections of March 1992, amid economic collapse and social unrest. An economical crises spread in the late 1996 following the failure of some Ponzi schemes operating in the country, peaking in the 1997 in an armed rebellion, that led to another mass emigration of Albanians, mostly to Italy, Greece, Switzerland, Germany and to North America.

In 1999 the country was affected by Kosovo War, when a great number of Albanians from Kosovo found refuge in Albania.

Albania became a full member of NATO in 2009. The country is applying to join the European Union.












Ponzi schemes operating in the country, peaking in the 1997 in an armed rebellion, that led to another mass emigration of Albanians, mostly to Italy, Greece, Switzerland, Germany and to North America.

In 1999 the country was affected by Kosovo War, when a great number of Albanians from Kosovo found refuge in Albania.

Albania became a full member of NATO in 2009. The country is applying to join the European Union.

Andorra , officially the Principality of Andorra (Catalan: Principat d'Andorra), also called the Principality of the Valleys of Andorra, (Catalan: Principat de les Valls d'Andorra), is a small landlocked country in southwestern Europe, located in the eastern Pyrenees mountains and bordered by Spain and France. It is the sixth smallest nation in Europe having an area of 468 km2 (181 sq mi) and an estimated population of 83,888 in 2009. Its capital, Andorra la Vella, is the highest capital city in Europe, being at an elevation of 1023 metres.[10] The official language is Catalan, although Spanish, Portuguese, and French are also commonly spoken.

The Principality was formed in 1278. The role of monarch is exercised jointly by the two co-princes, the President of the French Republic and the Bishop of Urgell, Catalan Countries.

Andorra is a prosperous country mainly because of its tourism industry, which services an estimated 10.2 million visitors annually,[11] and also because of its status as a tax haven. It is not a member of the European Union, but the euro is the de facto currency. The people of Andorra have the 4th highest human life expectancy in the world — 82 years at birth.


Tradition holds that Charles the Great (Charlemagne) granted a charter to the Andorran people in return for fighting against the Moors. Overlordship of the territory was by the Count of Urgell and eventually by the bishop of the Diocese of Urgell. In 988, Borrell II, Count of Urgell, gave the Andorran valleys to the Diocese of Urgell in exchange for land in Cerdanya.[13] Since then the Bishop of Urgell, based in Seu d'Urgell, has owned Andorra.

Before 1095, Andorra did not have any type of military protection and the Bishop of Urgell, who knew that the Count of Urgell wanted to reclaim the Andorran valleys,[14] asked for help and protection from the Lord of Caboet. In 1095, the Lord of Caboet and the Bishop of Urgell signed under oath a declaration of their co-sovereignty over Andorra. Arnalda, daughter of Arnau of Caboet, married the Viscount of Castellbò and both became Viscounts of Castellbò and Cerdanya. Years later their daughter, Ermessenda,[15] married Roger Bernat II, the French Count of Foix. They became Roger Bernat II and Ermessenda I, Counts of Foix, Viscounts of Castellbò and Cerdanya, and also co-sovereigns of Andorra (shared with the Bishop of Urgell).

In the 11th century, a dispute arose between the Bishop of Urgell and the Count of Foix. The conflict was resolved in 1278 with the mediation of Aragon by the signing of the first paréage which provided that Andorra's sovereignty be shared between the count of Foix[14] (whose title would ultimately transfer to the French head of state) and the Bishop of Urgell, in Catalonia. This gave the principality its territory and political form.

Over the years, the French co-title to Andorra passed to the kings of Navarre. After Henry of Navarre became King Henry IV of France, he issued an edict in 1607 that established the head of the French state and the Bishop of Urgell as co-princes of Andorra. In 1812–13, the First French Empire annexed Catalonia and divided it in four départements, with Andorra being made part of the district of Puigcerdà (département of Sègre).


Andorra declared war on Imperial Germany during World War I, but did not actually take part in the fighting. It remained in an official state of belligerency until 1957 as it was not included in the Treaty of Versailles.

In 1933, France occupied Andorra as a result of social unrest before elections. On July 12, 1934, adventurer Boris Skossyreff issued a proclamation in Urgell, declaring himself "Boris I, King of Andorra", simultaneously declaring war on the Bishop of Urgell. He was arrested by Spanish authorities on July 20 and ultimately expelled from Spain. From 1936 to 1940, a French detachment was garrisoned in Andorra to prevent influences of the Spanish Civil War and Franco's Spain. Francoist troops reached the Andorran border in the later stages of the war. During World War II, Andorra remained neutral and was an important smuggling route between Vichy France and Spain.

Given its relative isolation, Andorra has existed outside the mainstream of European history, with few ties to countries other than France and Spain. In recent times, however, its thriving tourist industry along with developments in transport and communications have removed the country from its isolation. Its political system was modernised in 1993, when it became a member of the United Nations and the Council of Europe.

Austria is a country of startling contrasts, from the soaring Alps to the verdant swathes of the Danube Valley. This European beauty is noted as much for its historical buildings, awe-inspiring museums and galleries, as for its world-class skiing conditions and breathtaking mountain scenery.

Groundbreaking cultural figures pepper Austria's history, from the composing geniuses of Mozart and Schubert, to the great mind of psychologist Sigmund Freud.

Glorious architectural riches include reminders of the once-powerful Habsburgs, who dominated central Europe for seven centuries; the capital of Austria, Vienna, is magnificent with its ornate Opera House and the imperial Hofburg, while many other cities are similarly infused with historical magic, notably Mozart's birthplace, Salzburg, with stunning baroque churches set before a backdrop of snow-covered peaks.

Belarus  , [Belarus', Belorussiya]), officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered clockwise by Russia to the northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Its capital is Minsk; other major cities include Brest, Grodno (Hrodna), Gomel (Homiel), Mogilev (Mahilyow) and Vitebsk (Vitsebsk). Over forty percent of its 207,600 square kilometres (80,200 sq mi) is forested, and its strongest economic sectors are agriculture and manufacturing.

Until the 20th century, the lands of modern day Belarus belonged to several countries, including the Principality of Polotsk, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Russian Empire. As a result of the Russian Revolution, Belarus became a founding constituent republic of the Soviet Union and was renamed as the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. The borders of Belarus took their modern shape in 1939 when lands that were part of the Second Polish Republic were incorporated into after the Soviet invasion of Poland.[8][9][10][11] The nation and its territory were devastated in World War II, during which Belarus lost about a third of its population and more than half of its economic resources. The republic was redeveloped in the post-war years. In 1945 the Belorussian SSR became a founding member of the UN, along with the Soviet Union and the Ukrainian SSR.

The parliament of the republic declared the sovereignty of Belarus on 27 July 1990, and during the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Belarus declared independence on 25 August 1991. Alexander Lukashenko has been the country's president since 1994. Under his lead and despite objections from Western governments, Soviet-era policies, such as state ownership of the economy have been continued. According to some organizations and countries, elections have been unfair, and political opponents have been violently suppressed.[15][16][17] In 2000, Belarus and Russia signed a treaty for greater cooperation, with some hints of forming a Union State.

Most of Belarus's population of 9.49 million reside in the urban areas surrounding Minsk and other oblast (regional) capitals.[18] More than 80% of the population are native Belarusians, with sizable minorities of Russians, Poles and Ukrainians. Since a referendum in 1995, the country has had two official languages: Belarusian and Russian. The Constitution of Belarus does not declare an official religion, although the primary religion in the country is Russian Orthodox Christianity. The second most popular, Roman Catholicism, has a much smaller following by comparison, but both Orthodox and Catholic Christmas and Easter are officially celebrated as national holidays. Belarus also has the highest Human Development Index among members of the Commonwealth of Independent States.


The name "Belarus" corresponds literally with the term "White Ruthenia" (White Rus'). There are several claims to where the origin of the name "White Rus'" came from.[19] An ethno-religious theory suggests that the name used to describe the part of old Ruthenian lands within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania that was mostly populated by the early Christianized Slavs, as opposed to Black Ruthenia, which to a greater extent was inhabited by predominantly pagan Balts.[20] Another possible origin for the name is for the white clothing that was worn by the local Slavic population.[19][21] Yet another theory suggests that the old Ruthenian lands (Polatsk, Vitsiebsk and Mahilyow) which were not conquered by the Tatars were referred to as "white". Other sources claim that before 1267, the land not conquered by the Mongols was considered "White Rus'".[19] In 2008, historian Ales Bely defended his PhD thesis in the Lithuanian Institute of History, Vilnius entitled Localization of the Choronym of White Rus in the European Written and Map Sources of the 13th to mid-18th Centuries[22] which showed that the term White Rus was originally largely referred to the lands of the Novgorod Republic conquered by the Grand Duchy of Moscow in 1478, and translated to the territory of what is now Eastern Belarus together with Westward expansion of Muscovy during the Livonian War in the 17th century.

As the names "Ruthenia" and "Rus'" have very often been confused with their modern derivative "Russia", White Ruthenia has often been referred to as "White Russia". This misinterpretation has been supported by the Moscovite regents after the fall of Kievan Rus'. The Moskovite dukes, starting with Ivan IV, considered themselves to be the rightful successors of the Ruthenian grand duke dynasty, and their use of the name "Russia" as referring to all former Ruthenian (east slavic) lands became a political weapon and a casus belli for claiming the west Ruthenian territories from Lithuania and Poland.[23] The name first appeared in German and Latin medieval literature. In chronicles written by Jan of Czarnków, he spoke of the Lithuanian grand duke Jogaila and his mother being imprisoned in 1381 at "Albae Russiae, Poloczk dicto".[24] The Latin term "Alba Russia" was again used by Pope Pius VI when establishing a Jesuit Society in 1783. His official Papal bull exclaimed "Approbo Societatem Jesu in Alba Russia degentem, approbo, approbo."[25] Historically, the country was referred to in English as "White Ruthenia". The first known use of "White Russia" to refer to Belarus was in the late-16th century by Englishman Sir Jerome Horsey, who was known for his close contacts with the Russian Royal Court.[26] During the 17th century, Russian tsars used "White Rus"" when describing the lands captured from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[27]

Belarus was formally named "Belorussia" (Russian: ??????????; the latter part similar, but spelled and stressed differently from ??????, "Russia") in the days of the Russian Empire, and the Russian tsar was usually styled "Tsar of All the Russias", as "Russia" or the "Russian Empire" was formed by all the Russias – the Great, Little, and White. At the time, "Byelorussia" was the only Russian language name of the country; under the Russian Empire, Belarus was generally seen as a part of the Russian nation and the Belarusian language was viewed as a dialect of Russian.[28] After the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, the term White Russia caused some confusion because it was also the name of the military force that opposed the "red" Bolsheviks.[29] During the period of the Belorussian SSR, the term "Byelorussia" was embraced as part of a national consciousness. In the Polish-held Western Belarus, "Byelorussia" became commonly used in the regions of Bialystok and Grodno during the interwar period.[30]

The term "Belorussia" (its names in other languages such as English being based on the Russian form) was only used officially until 1991, when the Supreme Soviet of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic decreed by law that the new independent republic should be called "Belarus" (????????) in Russian and in all other language transcriptions of its name. The change was made to reflect adequately the Belarusian language form of the name. The use of Byelorussian SSR and any abbreviations of that name was allowed from 1991 until 1993.[31] Conservative forces in the newly independent Belarus did not support the name change and opposed its inclusion in the 1991 draft of the Constitution of Belarus.[32]

Accordingly, the name "Belorussia" was replaced by "Belarus" in English[33] and to some extent in Russian (although the traditional name still persists in that language as well); likewise, the adjective "Belorussian" or "Byelorussian" was replaced by "Belarusian" in English (though Russian has not developed a new adjective). "Belarusian" is closer to the original Russian term of "bielaruski."[33] Belarusian intelligentsia in the Stalin era attempted to change the name from "Belorussia" to a form of "Krivia" because of the supposed connection with Russia.[34] Some nationalists also object to the name for the same reason.[35][36] However, several popular newspapers published locally still retain the old name of the country in Russian in their names, for example Komsomolskaya Pravda v Byelorussii, which is the localized publication of a popular Russian tabloid. Also, those who wish for Belarus to be reunited with Russia continue to use "Belorussia".[36] Officially, the full name of the country is "Republic of Belarus"

The Homo erectus and Neanderthal remains have been found in the region. Later Neolithic modern man that moved into the area established from 5000–2000 BCE Bandkerimik cultures, which predominated. Remains for the Dnieper-Donets culture were also found in Belarus and parts of Ukraine.[38] Cimmerians and other pastoralists roamed through the area by 1000 BCE. By 500 BCE, Slavs had taken up residence there, with Scythian pressure on the outskirts of their territories. Various Asiatic "barbarian" invasions passed around the region, including Huns and Avars c. 400–600 CE, but did not dislodge the Slavic presence.[39]

Stamp with the Cross of St. Euphrasyne from 1992 
The region that is now Belarus was first settled by Slavic tribes in the 6th century. They gradually came into contact with the Varangians, bands of Scandinavian warriors and traders.[40] Though defeated and briefly exiled by the local population, the Varangians were later asked to return[40] and helped to form a polity—commonly referred to as the Kievan Rus'—in exchange for tribute. The Kievan Rus' state began in about 862 around the city of Kiev[41] or alternatively around the present-day city of Novgorod.[41]

Upon the death of Kievan Rus' ruler, Yaroslav I the Wise, the state split into independent principalities.[42] These Ruthenian principalities were badly affected by a Mongol invasion in the 13th century, and many were later incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[43] Of the principalities held by the Duchy, nine were settled by ancestors of the Belarusian people.[44] During this time the Duchy was involved in several military campaigns, including fighting on the side of Poland against the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410; the joint victory allowed the Duchy to control the northwestern border lands of Eastern Europe.[45]


Map of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Belarus was in its structure. 
On 2 February 1386, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland were joined in a personal union through a marriage of their rulers.[46] This union set in motion the developments that eventually resulted in the formation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, created in 1569. The Russians, led by Ivan III of Moscow, began military conquests in 1486 in an attempt to reunite the Kievan Rus' lands, specifically the territories of modern day Belarus and Ukraine.

The union between Poland and Lithuania ended in 1795 with the partitioning of Poland by Imperial Russia, Prussia, and Austria.[48] During this time the territories of modern day Belarus were acquired by the Russian Empire under the reign of Catherine II[49] and held until their occupation by German Empire during World War I.[50]

During the negotiations of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Belarus first declared independence on 25 March 1918, forming the Belarusian People's Republic. The Belarusian People's Republic was created while under German occupation, and it was one of the first attempts to "Westernize" Belarus. Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia was proclaimed.[51][52] Immediately after formation, the Polish–Soviet War was started, and Belarus was torn between resurgent Poland and Soviet Russia. Part of Belarus under Russian rule became the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1919. Soon that part was merged into the Lithuanian–Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. The contested lands were split between Poland and the Soviet Union after the war ended in 1921, and the Belorussian SSR became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922.[51][53] The western part of modern Belarus remained part of Poland.[54][55][55]

A set of agricultural reforms, culminating in the Belarusian phase of Soviet collectivization, began in the 1920s. A process of rapid industrialization was undertaken during the 1930s, following the model of Soviet five-year plans.

The Brest Fortress to the War Memorial 

Soviet partisan fighters behind German front lines in Belarus in 1943 
In 1939, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union invaded and occupied Poland, marking the beginning of World War II. Much of northeastern Poland, which had been part of the country since the Peace of Riga two decades earlier, was annexed to the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, and now constitutes West Belarus.[8][9][10][11][12][13] The Soviet-controlled Belarusian People Council officially took control of the territories, which had a predominantly ethnic Belarusian population, on 28 October 1939, in Bialystok.[13]

Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. The Brest Fortress, which had been annexed in 1939, received one of the fiercest of the war's opening blows, with its notable defense in 1941 coming to be remembered as an act of heroism in countering the German aggression. Statistically, BSSR was the hardest hit Soviet republic in the war and remained in Nazi hands until 1944. During that time, Germany destroyed 209 out of 290 cities in the republic, 85% of the republic's industry, and more than one million buildings.[14] Casualties were estimated to be between two and three million (about a quarter to one-third of the total population), while the Jewish population of Belarus was devastated during the Holocaust and never recovered.[14][56] The population of Belarus did not regain its pre-war level until 1971.[56]

After the war ended, Belarus was officially among the 51 founding countries of the United Nations Charter in 1945; along with Ukraine it was given an additional vote at the UN alongside that of the Soviet Union. Intense post-war reconstruction was initiated promptly. During this time, the Belorussian SSR became a major center of manufacturing in the western region of the USSR, increasing jobs and bringing an influx of ethnic Russians into the republic.[57] The borders of Belorussian SSR and Poland were redrawn to a point known as the Curzon Line.[58]


Joseph Stalin implemented a policy of Sovietization to isolate the Belorussian SSR from Western influences.[56] This policy involved sending Russians from various parts of the Soviet Union and placing them in key positions in the Belorussian SSR government. The official use of the Belarusian language and other cultural aspects were limited by Moscow. After Stalin died in 1953, successor Nikita Khrushchev continued this program, stating, "The sooner we all start speaking Russian, the faster we shall build communism."[56]

The Belorussian SSR was significantly exposed to nuclear fallout from the explosion at the Chernobyl power plant in neighboring Ukrainian SSR in 1986.[59]

In June 1988 at the rural site of Kurapaty near Minsk, archaeologist Zyanon Paznyak, the leader of Christian Conservative Party of the BPF, discovered mass graves of victims executed in 1937–1941.[59] Some nationalists contend that this discovery is proof that the Soviet government was trying to erase the Belarusian people, causing Belarusian nationalists to seek independence.[60]

Two years later, in March 1990, elections for seats in the Supreme Soviet of the Belorussian SSR took place. Though the pro-independence Belarusian Popular Front took only 10% of the seats, the populace was content with the selection of the delegates.[61] Belarus declared itself sovereign on 27 July 1990 by issuing the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic. With the support of the Communist Party, the country's name was changed to the Republic of Belarus on 25 August 1991.[61] Stanislav Shushkevich, the chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus, met with Boris Yeltsin of Russia and Leonid Kravchuk of Ukraine on 8 December 1991 in Belavezhskaya Pushcha to formally declare the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States.[61]

A national constitution was adopted in March 1994 in which the functions of prime minister were given to the president of Belarus. Two-round elections for the presidency (24 June 1994 and 10 July 1994)[62] resulted in the politically unknown Alexander Lukashenko winning more than 45% of the vote in the first round and 80%[61] in the second round, beating Vyacheslav Kebich who received 14% of the votes. Lukashenko was re-elected in 2001, in 2006 and in 2011

Strusta Lake in the Vitebsk Province 
Belarus lies between latitudes 51° and 57° N, and longitudes 23° and 33° E. It is landlocked, relatively flat, and contains large tracts of marshy land.[63] According to a 2005 estimate by the United Nations, 40% of Belarus is covered by forests.[64] Many streams and 11,000 lakes are found in Belarus.[63] Three major rivers run through the country: the Neman, the Pripyat, and the Dnieper. The Neman flows westward towards the Baltic sea and the Pripyat flows eastward to the Dnieper; the Dnieper flows southward towards the Black Sea.[65]

The highest point is Dzyarzhynskaya Hara (Dzyarzhynsk Hill) at 345 metres (1,132 ft), and the lowest point is on the Neman River at 90 metres (295 ft).[63] The average elevation of Belarus is 525 feet (160 m) above sea level. The climate features cold winters, with average January temperatures at -6 °C (21.2 °F), and cool and moist summers with an average temperature of 18 °C (64.4 °F).[67] Belarus has an average annual rainfall of 550 to 700 mm  The country is in the transitional zone between continental climates and maritime climates.

Horses grazing in Minsk Province 
Natural resources include peat deposits, small quantities of oil and natural gas, granite, dolomite (limestone), marl, chalk, sand, gravel, and clay.[63] About 70% of the radiation from neighboring Ukraine's 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster entered Belarusian territory, and as of 2005 about a fifth of Belarusian land (principally farmland and forests in the southeastern provinces) continues to be affected by radiation fallout.[68] The United Nations and other agencies have aimed to reduce the level of radiation in affected areas, especially through the use of caesium binders and rapeseed cultivation, which are meant to decrease soil levels of caesium-137.[69][70]

Belarus is bordered by Latvia on the north, Lithuania to the northwest, Poland to the west, Russia to the north and east and Ukraine to the south. Treaties in 1995 and 1996 demarcated Belarus's borders with Latvia and Lithuania, but Belarus failed to ratify a 1997 treaty establishing the Belarus-Ukraine border.[71] Belarus and Lithuania ratified final border demarcation documents in February 2007.[72]

Victory Square, Minsk 
Belarus is a presidential republic, governed by a president and the National Assembly. The term for the president is five years, but because of a 1996 referendum, the election that was supposed to occur in 1999 was pushed back to 2001. Under the 1994 constitution, the president could only serve for two terms as president, but a change in the constitution eliminated term limits. The National Assembly is a bicameral parliament comprising the 110-member House of Representatives (the lower house) and the 64-member Council of the Republic (the upper house).

The House of Representatives has the power to appoint the prime minister, make constitutional amendments, call for a vote of confidence on the prime minister, and make suggestions on foreign and domestic policy. The Council of the Republic has the power to select various government officials, conduct an impeachment trial of the president, and accept or reject the bills passed by the House of Representatives. Each chamber has the ability to veto any law passed by local officials if it is contrary to the constitution.[73]

Since 1994, Alexander Lukashenko has been the president of Belarus. The government includes a Council of Ministers, headed by the prime minister and five deputy prime ministers.[74] The members of this council need not be members of the legislature and are appointed by the president. The judiciary comprises the Supreme Court and specialized courts such as the Constitutional Court, which deals with specific issues related to constitutional and business law. The judges of national courts are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Council of the Republic. For criminal cases, the highest court of appeal is the Supreme Court. The Belarusian Constitution forbids the use of special extrajudicial courts.[73]

House of Government in Minsk, with a statue of Vladimir Lenin in the foreground 
As of 2007, 98 of the 110 members of the House of Representatives are not affiliated with any political party, and of the remaining 12 members, 8 belong to the Communist Party of Belarus, 3 to the Agrarian Party of Belarus, and 1 to the Liberal Democratic Party of Belarus. Most of the non-partisans represent a wide scope of social organizations such as workers' collectives, public associations and civil society organizations, similar to the composition of the Soviet legislature.[75]

Neither the pro-Lukashenko parties, such as the Belarusian Socialist Sporting Party and the Republican Party of Labour and Justice, nor the People's Coalition 5 Plus opposition parties, such as the Belarusian People's Front and the United Civil Party of Belarus, won any seats in the 2004 elections. Groups such as the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) declared the election "un-free" because of the opposition parties' poor results and media bias in favor of the government.[76]

In the country's 2006 presidential election, Lukashenko was opposed by Alaksandar Milinkievic, a candidate representing a coalition of opposition parties, and by Alaksandar Kazulin of the Social Democrats. Kazulin was detained and beaten by police during protests surrounding the All Belarusian People's Assembly. Lukashenko won the election with 80% of the vote; the Russian Federation and the CIS called the vote open and fair] while the OSCE and other organizations called the election unfair.

In December 2010, Lukashenko was elected to a fourth straight term with nearly 80 percent of the vote in elections that were criticized by independent observers. When opposition protesters took to the streets, scores were beaten and arrested by state militia, including most of the rival candidates allowed to run. Six months later, activists using social networking sites initiated a fresh round of protests, mostly by wordless, hand-clapping rallies in Minsk and cities around the country, amid an unprecedented economic crisis.

Belgium (Dutch: België, French: Belgique, German: Belgien) [1] is a low-lying country on the North Sea coast in the Benelux. With the majority of West European capitals within 1,000 km of the Belgian capital of Brussels, and as a member of the long-standing international Benelux community, Belgium sits at the crossroads of Western Europe. Its immediate neighbors are France to the southwest, Luxembourg to the southeast, Germany to the east and the Netherlands to the north.
Belgium is a densely populated country trying to balance the conflicting demands of urbanization, transportation, industry, commercial and intensive agriculture. It imports large quantities of raw materials and exports a large volume of manufactured goods, mostly to the EU.
Belgium is the heir of several former Medieval powers, and you will see traces of these everywhere during your trip in this country.

After the collapse of the Carolingian Empire in the 9th century, the territory that is nowadays Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg, was part of Lotharingia, an ephemerous kingdom soon to be absorded into the Germanic Empire; however, the special character of "Lower Lotharingia" remained intact in the feudal Empire : this is the origin of the Low Countries, a general term that encompasses present-day Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg.
The widely autonomous fiefdoms of the Low Countries were amongst the richest places in Medieval Europe and you will see traces of this past wealth in the rich buildings of Bruges, Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, Leuven, Tournai, Mons, etc. These cities progressively fell under the control of a powerful and ambitious family : the Dukes of Burgundy. The whole realm of the dukes extended from the Low Countries to the borders of Switzerland. Using wealth, strategy, and alliances, the Dukes of Burgundy aimed at reconstituting Lotharingia. The death of the last Duke, Charles the Bold, put an end to this dream. However, the treasures of the Dukes of Burgundy remains as a testimony of their rules in Belgian museums and landmarks.
The powerful Habsburg family then inherited from the Low Countries. Reformation is the reason that Belgium and Netherlands were first put apart: the northern half of the Low Countries embraced Protestantism and rebelled against the Habsburg rule, while the southern half remained faithful to both its ruler and the Catholic faith. These two halves roughly corresponds to present-day Belgium and Netherlands.
Belgium was called Austrian Netherlands, then Spanish Netherlands, depending on which branch of the Habsburg ruled it. The powerful German emperor and Spanish king, Charles V, was born in the Belgian city of Ghent and ruled from Brussels. Many places in Belgium are named after him, including the city of Charleroi and even a brand of beer. Every year, the Brusselers emulates his first parade in their city in what is called the Ommegang.
Belgium was briefly a part of the Napoleonic Empire. After Napoleon's defeat, a large Kingdom of the Netherlands was created, comprising the whole of the Low Countries. However, the religious opposition still remained and the split was aggravated by political differences between Belgian liberals and Dutch aristocrats. Belgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830 after a short revolution and a war against the Netherlands.
It was occupied by Germany during World Wars I and II and has many war graves near the battle zones, most of them are around Ieper (in English archaically rendered as Ypres, with Yperite another name for mustard gas due to intensive use there in WWI). It has prospered in the past half century as a modern, technologically advanced European state and member of NATO and the EU. Tensions between the Dutch-speaking Flemings of the north and the French-speaking Walloons of the south have led in recent years to constitutional amendments granting these regions formal recognition and autonomy.

Bosnia and Herzegovina  Bosnian, Serbian, Croatian: Bosna i Hercegovina;  sometimes referred to as Bosnia-Herzegovina or simply Bosnia in the West, is a sovereign state in Southern Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula. Bordered by Croatia to the north, west and south, Serbia to the east, and Montenegro to the southeast, Bosnia and Herzegovina is almost landlocked, except for 26 kilometres (16 miles) of Adriatic Sea coastline, centered on the town of Neum. The interior of the country is mountainous centrally and to the south, hilly in the northwest, and flatland in the northeast. Inland is the larger geographic region with a moderate continental climate, marked by hot summers and cold, snowy winters. The southern tip of the country has a Mediterranean climate and plane topography.

The country is home to three ethnic groups, or so-called "constituent peoples", a term unique for Bosnia-Herzegovina. Bosniaks are the largest group of the three, with Serbs second and Croats third. Regardless of ethnicity, a citizen of Bosnia and Herzegovina is often identified in English as a Bosnian. The terms Herzegovinian and Bosnian are maintained as a regional rather than ethnic distinction, and Herzegovina has no precisely defined borders of its own. Moreover, the country was called just "Bosnia" (without Herzegovina) until Austro-Hungarian occupation at the end of the nineteenth century.[11]

Formerly one of the six federal units constituting the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina gained its independence during the Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a parliamentary republic, which has a bicameral legislature and a three-member Presidency composed of a member of each major ethnic group. However, the central government's power is highly limited, as the country is largely decentralized and comprises two autonomous entities: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska, with a third region, the Brcko District, governed under local government. The country is a potential candidate for membership to the European Union and has been a candidate for NATO membership since April 2010, when it received a Membership Action Plan at the summit in Tallinn. Additionally, the country has been a member of the Council of Europe since 24 April 2002 and a founding member of the Mediterranean Union upon its establishment on 13 July 2008.

Bosnia has been inhabited since at least the Neolithic age. The earliest Neolithic population became known in the Antiquity as the Illyrians. Celtic migrations in the 4th century BC were also notable. Concrete historical evidence for this period is scarce, but overall it appears that the region was populated by a number of different peoples speaking distinct languages. Conflict between the Illyrians and Romans started in 229 BC, but Rome would not complete its annexation of the region until AD 9.

Walls of ancient Daorson, Ošanici near Stolac, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 3rd century BC. 
It was precisely in what is now Bosnia and Herzegovina that Rome fought one of the most difficult battles in its history since the Punic Wars, as described by the Roman historian Suetonius.[12] This was the Roman campaign against the revolt of indigenous communities from Illyricum, known in history as the Great Illyrian Revolt, and also as the Pannonian revolt, or Bellum Batonianum, the latter named after two leaders of the rebellious Illyrian communities, Bato/Baton of the Daesitiates, and Bato of the Breuci.[13]

The Great Illyrian revolt was a rising up of Illyrians against the Romans, more specifically a revolt against Tiberius' attempt to recruit them for his war against the Germans. The Illyrians put up a fierce resistance to the most powerful army on earth at the time (the Roman Army) for four years (AD 6 to AD 9), but they were finally subdued by Rome in AD 9, with the Roman side suffering heavy losses.

The last Illyrian stronghold, of which their defence won the admiration of Roman historians, is said to have been Arduba.[14] Bato of Daesitiates was captured and taken to Italy. It is alleged that when Tiberius asked Bato and the Daesitiates why they had rebelled, Baton was reputed to have answered: "You Romans are to blame for this; for you send as guardians of your flocks, not dogs or shepherds, but wolves." Bato spent the rest of his life in the Italian town of Ravenna.[15]

In the Roman period, Latin-speaking settlers from the entire Roman Empire settled among the Illyrians, and Roman soldiers were encouraged to retire in the region.[16]

The land was originally part of Illyria up until the Roman occupation. Following the split of the Roman Empire between 337 and 395 AD, Dalmatia and Pannonia became parts of the Western Roman Empire. Some claim that the region was conquered by the Ostrogoths in 455 AD. It subsequently changed hands between the Alans and the Huns. By the 6th century, Emperor Justinian had reconquered the area for the Byzantine Empire. The Illyrians were conquered by the Avars in the 6th century.

The Charter of Kulin Ban is the oldest document of its kind among the South Slavic languages and is currently in a Saint Petersburg museum. 
Modern knowledge of the political situation in the west Balkans during the Early Middle Ages is unclear. Upon their arrival, the Slavs brought with them a tribal social structure which probably fell apart and gave way to Feudalism only with Frankish penetration into the region in the late 9th century. It was also around this time that the Illyrians were Christianized. Bosnia and Herzegovina, because of its geographic position and terrain, was probably one of the last areas to go through this process, which presumably originated from the urban centers along the Dalmatian coast.

The principalities of Serbia and Croatia split control of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 9th and 10th century, but by the High Middle Ages political circumstance led to the area being contested between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Byzantine Empire. Following another shift of power between the two in the early 12th century, Bosnia found itself outside the control of both and emerged as an independent state under the rule of local bans.[16]

The first Bosnian monarch was Ban Boric. The second was Ban Kulin whose rule marked the start of a controversy with the Bosnian Church, an indigenous Bogomilism sect considered heretical by the Roman Catholic Church, which he allowed access in the country. In response to Hungarian attempts to use church politics regarding the issue as a way to reclaim sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders to renounce the heresy and embraced Catholicism in 1203. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after Kulin's death in 1204, waning only after an unsuccessful invasion in 1254.

Bosnian history from then until the early 14th century was marked by the power struggle between the Šubic and Kotromanic families. This conflict came to an end in 1322, when Stephen II Kotromanic became Ban. By the time of his death in 1353, he was successful in annexing territories to the north and west, as well as Zahumlje and parts of Dalmatia. He was succeeded by his nephew Tvrtko who, following a prolonged struggle with nobility and inter-family strife, gained full control of the country in 1367. Tvrtko crowned himself on 26 October 1377 as Stephen Tvrtko I the King of Rascia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, Croatia, the Seaside.

Based on archaeological evidence, he was crowned in the in Mile near Visoko in the church which was built in the time of Stephen II Kotromanic's reign, where he was also buried alongside his uncle Stjepan II.[18][19] Following his death in 1391 however, Bosnia fell into a long period of decline. The Ottoman Empire had already started its conquest of Europe and posed a major threat to the Balkans throughout the first half of the 15th century. Finally, after decades of political and social instability, the Kingdom of Bosnia ceased to exist in 1463.

The Ottoman province of Bosnia in the 17th century. 
The Ottoman conquest of Bosnia marked a new era in the country's history and introduced drastic changes in the political and cultural landscape. The Ottomans allowed for the preservation of Bosnia's identity by incorporating it as an integral province of the Ottoman Empire with its historical name and territorial integrity — a unique case among subjugated states in the Balkans.

Within Bosnia the Ottomans introduced a number of key changes in the territory's socio-political administration; including a new landholding system, a reorganization of administrative units, and a complex system of social differentiation by class and religious affiliation.

The three centuries of Ottoman rule also had a drastic impact on Bosnia's population make-up, which changed several times as a result of the empire's conquests, frequent wars with European powers, forced and economic migrations, and epidemics. A native Slavic-speaking Muslim community emerged and eventually became the largest of the ethno-religious groups due to the restriction imposed by the Ottoman Empire,[21] and conversions-for-gain.

The Bosnian Christian communities also experienced major changes. The Bosnian Franciscans (and the Catholic population as a whole) were to some minor extent protected by official imperial decree. Meanwhile, the schismatic Bosnian Church disappeared altogether.[16]

As the Ottoman Empire continued their rule in the Balkans (Rumelia), Bosnia was somewhat relieved of the pressures of being a frontier province, and experienced a period of general welfare. A number of cities, such as Sarajevo and Mostar, were established and grew into regional centers of trade and urban culture and were then visited by Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi in 1648. Within these cities, various Ottoman Sultans financed the construction of many works of Bosnian architecture such as the country's first library in Sarajevo, madrassas, school of Sufi philosophy, and clock tower (Sahat Kula), along with numerous other important cultural structures, bridges such as the Stari Most and the Tsar's Mosque and the Gazi Husrev-beg's Mosque.

Furthermore, some Bosnians played influential roles in the Ottoman Empire's cultural and political history during this time. Bosnian recruits formed a large component of the Ottoman ranks in the battles of Mohács and Krbava field, while numerous other Bosnians rose through the ranks of the Ottoman military to occupy the highest positions of power in the Empire, including admirals such as Matrakçi Nasuh; generals such as Isa-Beg Isakovic, Gazi Husrev-beg and Telli Hasan Pasha; administrators such as Ferhat-paša Sokolovic and Osman Gradašcevic; and Grand Viziers such as the influential Mehmed Paša Sokolovic. Some Bosnians emerged as Sufi mystics, scholars such as Ali Džabic; and poets in the Turkish, Albanian, Arabic, and Persian languages.[21]

Bosnian Muslims praying, ca. 1906. 
However, by the late 17th century the Empire's military misfortunes caught up with the country, and the conclusion of the Great Turkish War with the treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 once again made Bosnia the Empire's westernmost province. The following century was marked by further military failures, numerous revolts within Bosnia, and several outbursts of plague. The Porte's false efforts at modernizing the Ottoman state were met with distrust growing to become great hostility in Bosnia, where local aristocrats stood to lose much through the proposed reforms.

This, combined with frustrations over political concessions to nascent Christian states in the east, culminated in a famous and ultimately unsuccessful revolt by Husein Gradašcevic, in 1831 after the Turkish Sultan Mahmud II slaughtered and abolished the Janissary.[21] Related rebellions would be extinguished by 1850, but the situation continued to deteriorate. Later agrarian unrest eventually sparked the Herzegovinian rebellion, a widespread peasant uprising, in 1875. The conflict rapidly spread and came to involve several Balkan states and Great Powers, a situation which eventually led to the Congress of Berlin and the treaty of Berlin in 1878.[16]

[edit] Austro-Hungarian rule (1878–1918)

Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1878–1918)

At the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy obtained the occupation and administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and he also obtained the right to station garrisons in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, which remained under Ottoman administration. The Sanjak preserved the separation of Serbia and Montenegro, and the Austro-Hungarian garrisons there would open the way for a dash to Salonika that "would bring the western half of the Balkans under permanent Austrian influence."[22] "High [Austro-Hungarian] military authorities desired [an ...] immediate major expedition with Salonika as its objective."[23]


On 28 September 1878 the Finance Minister, Koloman von Zell, threatened to resign if the army, behind which stood the Archduke Albert, were allowed to advance to Salonika. In the session of the Hungarian Parliament of 5 November 1878 the Opposition proposed that the Foreign Minister should be impeached for violating the constitution by his policy during the Near East Crisis and by the occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. The motion was lost by 179 to 95. By the Opposition rank and file the gravest accusations were raised against Andrassy.[23]

Although an Austro-Hungarian side quickly came to an agreement with Bosnians, tensions remained in certain parts of the country (particularly south) and a mass emigration of predominantly Slavic dissidents occurred.[16] However, a state of relative stability was reached soon enough and Austro-Hungarian authorities were able to embark on a number of social and administrative reforms which intended to make Bosnia and Herzegovina into a "model colony".

A plaque commemorating the location of the Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. 
With the aim of establishing the province as a stable political model that would help dissipate rising South Slav nationalism, Habsburg rule did much to codify laws, to introduce new political practices, and generally to provide for modernisation. The Austro-Hungarian Empire built the three Roman Catholic churches in Sarajevo and these three churches are among only 20 Catholic churches in the state of Bosnia.

Within three years of formal occupation of Bosnia Herzegovina, Austria-Hungary, in 1881, obtained German, and more importantly, Russian, approval for the annexation of these provinces, at the time which best suited Vienna. This mandate was formally ratified by the Dreikaiserbund (Three Emperor's Treaty) on June 18 of that year.[24] Upon the accession of Czar Nicholas II, however, the Russians reneged on the agreement, asserting in 1897 the need for special scrutiny of the Bosnian Annexation issue at an unspecified future date.[25]

External matters began to affect the Bosnian Protectorate, however, and its relationship with Austria-Hungary. A bloody coup occurred in Serbia, on June 10, 1903, which brought a radical anti-Austrian government into power in Belgrade.[26] Serb attempts to foment agitation followed, advocating a unified South Slavic state, ruled from Belgrade. This gained little support amongst most of the population of Bosnia Herzegovina, and only found fertile ground with disaffected portions of the Orthodox minority. Also, the revolt in the Ottoman Empire in 1908, raised concerns that the Istanbul government might seek the outright return of Bosnia Herzegovina. These factors caused the Austrian-Hungarian government to seek a permanent resolution of the Bosnian question, sooner, rather than later.

On July 2, 1908, in response to the pressing of the Austrian-Hungarian claim, the Russian Imperial Foreign Minister Alexander Izvolsky offered to support the Bosnian Annexation in return for Vienna's support for Russia's bid for naval access through the Dardanelles Straits into the Mediterranean.[27] With the Russians being, at least, provisionally willing to keep their word over Bosnia Herzegovina for the first time in 11 years, Austria-Hungary waited a reasonably adequate time and then published the annexation proclamation on October 6, 1908. The international furore over the annexation announcement caused Izvolsky to drop the Dardanelles Straits question, altogether, in an effort to obtain a European conference over the Bosnian Annexation.[28] This conference never materialized and without English or French support, the Russians and their client state, Serbia, were compelled to accept the Austrian-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia Herzegovina in March 1909.

The political tensions caused by all this culminated on 28 June 1914, when Serb nationalist youth Gavrilo Princip assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, in Sarajevo – an event that proved to be the spark that set off World War I. Although some Bosnians died serving in the armies of the various warring states, Bosnia and Herzegovina itself managed to escape the conflict relatively unscathed.[20]

Following the war, Bosnia and Herzegovina joined the South Slav kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (soon renamed Yugoslavia). Political life in Bosnia at this time was marked by two major trends: social and economic unrest over property redistribution, and formation of several political parties that frequently changed coalitions and alliances with parties in other Yugoslav regions.[20] The dominant ideological conflict of the Yugoslav state, between Croatian regionalism and Serbian centralization, was approached differently by Bosnia's major ethnic groups and was dependent on the overall political atmosphere.[16] The political reforms brought about in the newly established Yugoslavian kingdom saw few benefits for the Bosniaks; according to the 1910 final census of land ownership and population according to religious affiliation conducted in Austro-Hungary, Muslims (Bosniaks) owned 91.1%, Orthodox Serbians owned 6.0%, Croatian Catholics owned 2.6% and others, 0.3% of the property. Following the reforms Bosnian Muslims had a total of 1,175,305 hectares of agricultural and forest land taken away from them.[29]

Although the initial split of the country into 33 oblasts erased the presence of traditional geographic entities from the map, the efforts of Bosnian politicians such as Mehmed Spaho ensured that the six oblasts carved up from Bosnia and Herzegovina corresponded to the six sanjaks from Ottoman times and, thus, matched the country's traditional boundary as a whole

The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, however, brought the redrawing of administrative regions into banates or banovinas that purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, removing any trace of a Bosnian entity. Serbo-Croat tensions over the structuring of the Yugoslav state continued, with the concept of a separate Bosnian division receiving little or no consideration.

The famous Cvetkovic-Macek Agreement that created the Croatian banate in 1939 encouraged what was essentially a partition of Bosnia between Croatia and Serbia.[21] However, outside political circumstances forced Yugoslav politicians to shift their attention to the rising threat posed by Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany. Following a period that saw attempts at appeasement, the signing of the Tripartite Treaty, and a coup d'état, Yugoslavia was finally invaded by Germany on 6 April 1941.[16]

Monument commemorating the Battle of Sutjeska in eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina. 
Once the kingdom of Yugoslavia was conquered by Nazi forces in World War II, all of Bosnia was ceded to the Independent State of Croatia. The Croat leaders embarked on a campaign of extermination of Serbs, Jews, Roma, communist and large numbers of Josip Broz Tito's Partisans by setting up a number of death camps.

Many Serbs themselves took up arms and joined the Chetniks; a Serb nationalist movement that conducted operations coordinated with Nazi forces against the partisans. The Chetniks were also known to persecute and murder non-Serbs and communist sympathizers. They committed many war crimes against Bosnian Muslims in Eastern Bosnia.

Starting in 1941, Yugoslav communists under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito organized their own multi-ethnic resistance group, the partisans, who fought against both Axis and Chetnik forces. On 29 November 1943 the Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia with Tito at its helm held a founding conference in Jajce where Bosnia and Herzegovina was reestablished as a republic within the Yugoslavian federation in its Habsburg borders.

Military success eventually prompted the Allies to support the Partisans, but Tito declined their offer to help and relied on his own forces instead. All the major military offensives by the antifascist movement of Yugoslavia against Nazis and their local supporters were conducted in Bosnia-Herzegovina and its peoples bore the brunt of fighting. Eventually the end of the war resulted in the establishment of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, with the constitution of 1946 officially making Bosnia and Herzegovina one of six constituent republics in the new state.[16]

Because of its central geographic position within the Yugoslavian federation, post-war Bosnia was strategically selected as a base for the development of the military defense industry. This contributed to a large concentration of arms and military personnel in Bosnia; a significant factor in the war that followed the break-up of Yugoslavia in the 1990s.[16] However, Bosnia's existence within Yugoslavia, for the large part, was peaceful and prosperous. Though considered a political backwater of the federation for much of the 1950s and 1960s, in the 1970s strong Bosnian political elite ascended fueled in part by Tito's leadership in the Non-Aligned Movement and Bosnians serving in Yugoslavia's diplomatic corps.

While working within the communist system, politicians such as Džemal Bijedic, Branko Mikulic and Hamdija Pozderac reinforced and protected the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina[30] Their efforts proved key during the turbulent period following Tito's death in 1980, and are today considered some of the early steps towards Bosnian independence. However, the republic hardly escaped the increasingly nationalistic climate of the time unscathed. With the fall of the Soviet Union and the start of the break-up of Yugoslavia, the old communist doctrine of tolerance began to lose its potency, creating an opportunity for nationalist elements in the society to spread their influence.

On 18 November 1990 the first multi-party parliamentary elections were held (with a 2nd round on 25 November), which resulted in a national assembly dominated by three ethnically based parties, which had formed a loose coalition to oust the communists from power.[31] Croatia and Slovenia's subsequent declarations of independence and the warfare that ensued placed Bosnia and Herzegovina and its three constituent peoples in an awkward position. A significant split soon developed on the issue of whether to stay with the Yugoslav federation (overwhelmingly favored among Serbs) or seek independence (overwhelmingly favored among Bosniaks and Croats).

The Serb members of parliament, consisting mainly of the Serb Democratic Party members, abandoned the central parliament in Sarajevo, and formed the Assembly of the Serb People of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 24 October 1991, which marked the end of the tri-ethnic coalition that governed after the elections in 1990. This Assembly established the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992, which became Republika Srpska in August 1992.

On 18 November 1991, the party branch in Bosnia and Herzegovina of the ruling party in the Republic of Croatia, the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), proclaimed the existence of the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia, as a separate "political, cultural, economic and territorial whole", on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with Croat Defence Council (HVO) as its military part.[32] The Bosnian government did not recognize it. The Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared Herzeg-Bosnia illegal, first on 14 September 1992 and again on 20 January 1994.]

A declaration of Bosnia and Herzegovina sovereignty on 15 October 1991 was followed by a referendum for independence from Yugoslavia on 29 February and 1 March 1992 boycotted by the great majority of the Serbs. The turnout in the independence referendum was 63.4 per cent and 99.7 per cent of voters voted for independence.[35] Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence on 3 March 1992. Following a tense period of escalating tensions the opening shots in the incipient Bosnian conflict were fired when Serb paramilitary forces attacked Bosniak villages around Capljina on 7 March 1992 and around Bosanski Brod and Gorazde on 15 March. These minor attacks were followed by much more serious Serb artillery attacks on Neum on 19 March and on Bosanski Brod on 24 March. The killing of a Bosniak civilian woman on 5 April 1992 by a sniper, while she was demonstrating in Sarajevo against the raising of barricades by Bosnian Serbs, is widely regarded as marking the start of warfare between the three major communities.

The parliament building in the centre of Sarajevo burns after being hit by tank fire during the siege in 1992. 
Secret discussions between Franjo Tudman and Slobodan Miloševic on the division of Bosnia and Herzegovina between Serbia and Croatia were held as early as March 1991 known as Karadordevo agreement. Following the declaration of independence of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Serbs attacked different parts of the country. The state administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina effectively ceased to function having lost control over the entire territory. The Serbs wanted all lands where Serbs had a majority, eastern and western Bosnia.

The Croats and their leader Tudman also aimed at securing parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina as Croatian. The policies of the Republic of Croatia and its leader Franjo Tudman towards Bosnia and Herzegovina were never totally transparent and always included Franjo Tudman's ultimate aim of expanding Croatia's borders. Bosnian Muslims, the only ethnic group loyal to the Bosnian government, were an easy target, because the Bosnian government forces were poorly equipped and unprepared for the war.[36]

International recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina increased diplomatic pressure for the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) to withdraw from the republic's territory which they officially did. However, in fact, the Bosnian Serb members of JNA simply changed insignia, formed the Army of Republika Srpska, and continued fighting. Armed and equipped from JNA stockpiles in Bosnia, supported by volunteers and various paramilitary forces from Serbia, and receiving extensive humanitarian, logistical and financial support from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Republika Srpska's offensives in 1992 managed to place much of the country under its control.[16]

Initially, the Serb forces attacked the non-Serb civilian population in Eastern Bosnia. Once towns and villages were securely in their hands, the Serb forces – military, police, the paramilitaries and, sometimes, even Serb villagers – applied the same pattern: Bosniak houses and apartments were systematically ransacked or burnt down, Bosniak civilians were rounded up or captured, and sometimes beaten or killed in the process. 2.2 million refugees were displaced by the end of the war (of all three nationalities).[37]

Men and women were separated, with many of the men detained in the camps. The women were kept in various detention centres where they had to live in intolerably unhygienic conditions, where they were mistreated in many ways including being raped repeatedly. Serb soldiers or policemen would come to these detention centres, select one or more women, take them out and rape them.[38]

In June 1992 the focus switched to Novi Travnik and Gornji Vakuf where the Croat Defence Council (HVO) efforts to gain control were resisted. On 18 June 1992 the Bosnian Territorial Defence in Novi Travnik received an ultimatum from the HVO which included demands to abolish existing Bosnia and Herzegovina institutions, establish the authority of the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia and pledge allegiance to it, subordinate the Territorial Defense to the HVO and expel Muslim refugees, all within 24 hours. The attack was launched on June 19. The elementary school and the Post Office were attacked and damaged.[39]

Gornji Vakuf was initially attacked by Croats on 20 June 1992, but the attack failed. The Graz agreement caused deep division inside the Croat community and strengthened the separation group, which led to the conflict with Bosniaks. One of the primary pro-union Croat leaders, Blaž Kraljevic (leader of the Croatian Defence Forces (HOS) armed group) was killed by HVO soldiers in August 1992, which severely weakened the moderate group who hoped to keep the Bosnian Croat alliance alive.

The situation became more serious in October 1992 when Croat forces attacked Bosniak population in Prozor. According to Jadranko Prlic indictment, HVO forces cleansed most of the Muslims from the town of Prozor and several surrounding villages.

By 1993, when an armed conflict erupted between the predominantly Bosniak government in Sarajevo and the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia, about 70% of the country was controlled by Republika Srpska. Ethnic cleansing and civil rights violations against non-Serbs were rampant in these areas. DNA teams have been used to collect evidence of the atrocities committed by Serbian forces during these campaigns.[41] One single most prominent example is the Srebrenica Massacre, ruled genocide by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. An estimated 7,000 Bosnians were killed by the Serbian political authorities.[42]

In March 1994, the signing of the Washington Accords between the leaders of the republican government and Herzeg-Bosnia led to the creation of a joint Bosniak-Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which absorbed the territory of the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia and that held by the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Federation soon liberated the small Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia.

A NATO bombing campaign began in August, 1995, against the Army of Republika Srpska, after the Srebrenica massacre. Meanwhile, a ground offensive by the allied forces of Croatia and Bosnia, based on the treaty in Split by Tudjman and Izetbegovic, pushed the Serbs away from territories held in western Bosnia which paved the way to negotiations. In December 1995, the signing of the Dayton Agreement in Dayton, Ohio by the presidents of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Alija Izetbegovic), Croatia (Franjo Tudman), and Serbia (Slobodan Miloševic) brought a halt to the fighting, roughly establishing the basic structure of the present-day state. The number of identified victims is currently at 97,207, and the recent research estimates the total number to be less than 110,000 killed (civilians and military),[43][44][45] and 1.8 million displaced. This is being addressed by the International Commission on Missing Persons.

According to numerous International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) judgments the conflict involved Bosnia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (later Serbia and Montenegro)[46] as well as Croatia.[47]

Gravestones at the Srebrenica Genocide memorial. 
The Bosnian government charged Serbia of complicity in genocide in Bosnia during the war at the International Court of Justice (ICJ). The ICJ ruling of 26 February 2007 effectively determined the war's nature to be international, though exonerating Serbia of direct responsibility for the genocide committed by Serb forces of Republika Srpska. The ICJ concluded, however, that Serbia failed to prevent genocide committed by Serb forces and failed to punish those who carried out the genocide, especially general Ratko Mladic, and bring them to justice.[48] Ratko Mladic was arrested in a village in northern Serbia on 26 May 2011, being accused of overseeing the slaughter of 8,000 Muslim men and boys and for war other genocide charges.

The judges ruled that the criteria for genocide with the specific intent (dolus specialis) to destroy Bosnian Muslims were met only in Srebrenica or Eastern Bosnia in 1995. The court concluded that the crimes committed during the 1992–1995 war, may amount to crimes against humanity according to the international law, but that these acts did not, in themselves, constitute genocide. The Court further decided that, following Montenegro's declaration of independence in June, 2006, Serbia was the only respondent party in the case, but that "any responsibility for past events involved at the relevant time the composite State of Serbia and Montenegro".[52]

Bulgaria  officially the Republic of Bulgaria  Republika Balgariya,  is a country in Southeast Europe. Bulgaria borders five other countries: Romania to the north (mostly along the Danube), Serbia and the Republic of Macedonia to the west, and Greece and Turkey to the south. The Black Sea defines the extent of the country to the east.

With a territory of 110,994 square kilometers (42,855 sq mi), Bulgaria ranks as the 15th-largest country in Europe. Several mountainous areas define the landscape, most notably Stara Planina (the Balkan mountains) and Rhodope mountain ranges, as well as the Rila range, which includes the highest peak in the entire Balkans. In contrast, the Danubian plain in the north and the Upper Thracian Plain in the south represent Bulgaria's lowest and most fertile regions. The 378-kilometer (235 mi) Black Sea coastline covers the entire eastern bound of the country.

The emergence of a unified Bulgarian ethnicity and state dates back to the 7th century AD. All Bulgarian political entities that subsequently emerged preserved the traditions (in ethnic name, language and alphabet) of the First Bulgarian Empire (681–1018), which at times covered most of the Balkans and became a cultural hub for the Slavs in the Middle Ages.[6] With the decline of the Second Bulgarian Empire (1185–1396), Bulgarian territories came under Ottoman rule for nearly five centuries. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 led to the establishment of a Third Bulgarian state as a principality in 1878, which gained its full sovereignty in 1908.[7] In 1945, after World War II, it became a communist state[8] and was a part of the Eastern Bloc until the political changes in Eastern Europe in 1989/1990, when the Communist Party allowed multi-party elections. Bulgarian politics undertook a transition to democracy and elements of free-market capitalism were introduced.

The Bulgarian government functions as a parliamentary democracy within a unitary constitutional republic. Sofia, the capital, is Bulgaria's largest and the European Union's 12th largest city,[9] and is also a global city. Its government is a member of the European Union, NATO, the United Nations, the Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and is a founding state of the OSCE and the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organization. Bulgaria has a high Human Development Index of 0.743, ranking 58th in the world in 2010.[10]

A gold rhyton from the Panagyurishte treasure, the 4th–3rd century BC 
Prehistoric cultures in the Bulgarian lands include the Neolithic Hamangia culture and Vinca culture (6th to 3rd millennia BC), the eneolithic Varna culture (5th millennium BC; see also Varna Necropolis), and the Bronze Age Ezero culture. The Karanovo chronology serves as a gauge for the prehistory of the wider Balkans region.

The Thracians, one of the three primary ancestral groups of modern Bulgarians, lived separated in various tribes until King Teres united most of them around 500 BC in the Odrysian kingdom. They were eventually subjugated by Alexander the Great and later by the Roman Empire. After migrating from their original homeland, the easternmost South Slavs settled on the territory of modern Bulgaria during the 6th century and assimilated the Hellenized or Romanised Thracians. Eventually the Bulgar élite incorporated all of them into the First Bulgarian Empire.[11] By 
First Bulgarian Empire

Asparukh, heir of Old Great Bulgaria's khan Kubrat, migrated with several Bulgar tribes to the lower courses of the rivers Danube, Dniester and Dniepr (known as Ongal) after his father's state was subjugated by the Khazars. He conquered Moesia and Scythia Minor (Dobrudzha) from the Byzantine Empire, expanding his new kingdom further into the Balkan Peninsula.[13] A peace treaty with Byzantium in 681 and the establishment of a Bulgarian capital at Pliska south of the Danube mark the beginning of the First Bulgarian Empire.

Succeeding khans strengthened the Bulgarian state — Tervel (700–721) established Bulgaria as a major military power by defeating a 26,000-strong Arab army during the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople;[14] Krum (802–814)[15] doubled the country's territory, killed emperor Nicephorus I in the Battle of Pliska,[16] and introduced the first written code of law; Boris I (852–889) abolished Tengriism in favor of Eastern Orthodox Christianity in 864,[17] and introduced the Cyrillic alphabet. Simeon the Great's rule (893–927) saw the largest territorial expansion of Bulgaria in its history,[18] along with a golden age of Bulgarian culture and a military supremacy over the Byzantine Empire, demonstrated in the Battle of Achelous (917).[19]


Khan Krum feasts with his nobles after the battle of Pliska. His servant (far right) brings the wine-filled skull cup of emperor Nicephorus I. 
After Simeon's death, Bulgaria declined during the mid-10th century, weakened by wars with Croatians, Magyars, Pechenegs and Serbs, and the spread of the Bogomil heresy.[20][21] This resulted in consecutive Rus' and Byzantine invasions, which ended with the seizure of the capital Preslav by the Byzantine army.[22] Under Samuil, Bulgaria somewhat recovered from these attacks and even managed to conquer Serbia, Bosnia[23] and Duklja,[24] but this ended in 1014, when Byzantine Emperor Basil II ("the Bulgar-Slayer") defeated its armies at Klyuch.[25] Samuil died shortly after the battle, on 15 October 1014,[25] and by 1018 the Byzantine Empire conquered the remaimed parts of the First Bulgarian Empire, putting it to an end.
Second Bulgarian Empire

Main articles: Uprising of Asen and Peter and Second Bulgarian Empire

Basil II managed to prevent rebellions by retaining the local rule of the Bulgarian nobility (incorporated into Byzantine aristocracy as archons or strategoi),[26] guaranteeing the indivisibility of Bulgaria in its former geographic borders and recognising the autocephaly of the Bulgarian Archbishopric of Ohrid.[27] After his death Byzantine domestic policies changed, which led to a series of unsuccessful rebellions, the largest being led by Peter II Delyan. It was not until 1185 when Asen dynasty nobles Ivan Asen I and Peter IV organized a major uprising and succeeded in reestablishing the Bulgarian state, marking the beginning of the Second Bulgarian Empire.


The Bulgarian Empire under tzar Ivan Asen II 
The Asen dynasty set up its capital in Tarnovo. Kaloyan, the third of the Asen monarchs, extended his dominions to Belgrade, Nish and Skopie; he acknowledged the spiritual supremacy of the Pope, and received a royal crown from a papal legate.[11] Cultural and economic growth persisted under Ivan Asen II (1218–1241), who extended Bulgaria's control over Albania, Epirus, Macedonia and Thrace.[28] The achievements of the Tarnovo artistic school as well as the first coins to be minted by a Bulgarian ruler were only a few signs of the empire's welfare at that time.[11]

The Asen dynasty ended in 1257, and due to Tatar invasions, internal conflicts, and constant Byzantine and Hungarian attacks, the country's military and economic might declined. By the end of the 14th century, factional divisions between Bulgarian feudal landlords (bolyari) and the spread of Bogomilism had caused the Second Bulgarian Empire to split into three small tsardoms (At Vidin, Tarnovo and Karvuna) and several semi-independent principalities that fought among themselves, and also with Byzantines, Hungarians, Serbs, Venetians and Genoese. In the same period the Ottoman Turks, who had already started their invasion of the Balkans, conquered most Bulgarian towns and fortresses south of the Balkan Mountains and began their northwards conquest.

Ottoman Bulgaria and National awakening of Bulgaria
In 1393, the Ottomans captured Tarnovo, the capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire, after a three-month siege. In 1396, the Vidin Tsardom fell after the defeat of a Christian crusade at the Battle of Nicopolis. Finally, the Vidin Tzardom fell to in 1423 and with this, the Ottomans finally subjugated and occupied all Bulgarian controlled lands south of the Danube. [30][31][32] During their rule, the Bulgarian population south of the Danube suffered greatly from oppression, intolerance and misgovernment.

North of the Danube, where a significant number of Bulgarian nobility and common folk remained, the population was under the jurisdiction of various Christian autonomous, predominately Wallachian led principalities, where the Bulgarian alphabet continued to be used [34] and many cities kept their Bulgarian names, like the Wallachian capital of Targovishte. The nobility in the Christian principalities north of the Danube, continued to be known by their Bulgarian titles of Boyars and regularly helped Bulgarian population to continue to migrate north, as part of their military campaigns south of the Danube.  Thus, Bulgarian population north of the Danube never came under Ottoman occupation, which greatly helped the National revival south of the Danube in later centuries.

The nobility south of the Danube however, was eliminated and parts of the peasantry enserfed to Ottoman masters[36] while Bulgarians lacked judicial equality with the Ottoman Muslims and had to pay much higher taxes than them.[37] Bulgarian culture became isolated from Europe, its achievements destroyed, and the educated clergy fled to other countries.

Throughout the nearly five centuries of Ottoman rule, the Bulgarian people responded to the oppression by strengthening the haydut ("rebels") tradition,] and attempted to reestablish their state by organizing several revolts, most notably the First and Second Tarnovo Uprisings (1598 / 1686) and Karposh's Rebellion (1689). The National awakening of Bulgaria became one of the key factors in the struggle for liberation, resulting in the 1876 April uprising—the largest and best-organized Bulgarian rebellion. Though crushed by the Ottoman authorities—in reprisal, the Turks massacred some 15,000 Bulgarians[12]—the uprising prompted the Great Powers to take action. They convened the Constantinople Conference in 1876, but their decisions were rejected by the Ottoman authorities, which allowed the Russian Empire to seek a solution by force without risking military confrontation with other Great Powers (as had happened in the Crimean War of 1854 to 1856). The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 resulted in the defeat of Ottoman forces by the Russian Army (supported by Bulgarian volunteer forces and the Romanian Army) and the Treaty of San Stefano (3 March 1878), which set up an autonomous Bulgarian principality.

The Great Powers immediately rejected the treaty, fearing that such a large country in the Balkans might threaten their interests. The subsequent Treaty of Berlin (1878) provided for a much smaller autonomous state comprising Moesia and the region of Sofia.[39] The Bulgarian principality proclaimed itself a fully independent state on 5 October (22 September O.S.), 1908, after it won a war against Serbia and incorporated the semi-autonomous Ottoman territory of Eastern Rumelia.


Tzar Ferdinand I and his cabinet prepare to announce the declaration of independence, 1908 
In the years following the achievement of complete independence Bulgaria became increasingly militarized, and was referred to as "the Balkan Prussia".[40][41] In 1885 Northern Bulgaria and Southern Bulgaria united and subsequently defeated Serbia in the war of 1885. Between 1912 and 1918, Bulgaria became involved in a string of three consecutive conflicts – the Balkan Wars and World War I. After a disastrous defeat in the Second Balkan War, Bulgaria again found itself fighting on the losing side as a result of its alliance with the Central Powers in World War I. Despite achieving several decisive victories at Doiran, Monastir and again at Doiran in 1918, the country capitulated in 1918 and suffered significant territorial losses,[12] a total of 412,000 casualties, and a wave of more than 253,000[42] refugees who put an additional strain on the already ruined national economy.

The political unrest resulting from these losses led to the establishment of a royal authoritarian dictatorship by Tsar Boris III (1918–1943). Bulgaria entered World War II in 1941 as a member of the Axis but declined to participate in Operation Barbarossa and saved its Jewish population from deportation to concentration camps.[43] In the summer of 1943 Boris III died suddenly, an event which pushed the country into political turmoil as the war turned against Nazi Germany and the Communist guerilla movement gained more power.[44] In September 1944 the Communist-dominated Fatherland Front took power, following strikes and unrest, ending the alliance with Nazi Germany and joining the Allied side until the end of the war in 1945.

Zhelyu Zhelev (left), the first democratically elected president of Bulgaria[45] with George H. W. Bush in 1990 
The Communist uprising of 9 September 1944 led to the abolition of monarchic rule, but it was not until 1946 that a people's republic was established. It came under the Soviet sphere of influence, with Georgi Dimitrov (1946–1949) as the foremost Bulgarian political leader. Bulgaria installed a Soviet-style planned economy with some market-oriented policies emerging on an experimental level[46] under Todor Zhivkov (1954–1989). By the mid 1950s standards of living rose significantly.[47] Lyudmila Zhivkova, daughter of Zhivkov, promoted Bulgaria's national heritage, culture and arts worldwide.[48] On the other hand, an assimilation campaign of the late 1980s directed against ethnic Turks resulted in the emigration of some 300,000 of them to Turkey.[49][50] On 10 November 1989, the Bulgarian Communist Party gave up its political monopoly, Zhivkov resigned, and Bulgaria embarked on a transition from a single-party republic to a parliamentary democracy.

In June 1990 the first free elections took place, won by the moderate wing of the Communist Party (the Bulgarian Socialist Party—BSP). In July 1991, a new constitution that provided for a relatively weak elected President and for a Prime Minister accountable to the legislature, was adopted. The new system eventually failed to improve living standards or create economic growth — the average quality of life and economic performance actually remained lower than in the times of Communism well into the early 2000s.[51]

A reform package introduced in 1997 restored positive economic growth, but led to rising social inequality. Bulgaria became a member of NATO in 2004 and of the European Union in 2007. The US Library of Congress Federal Research Division reported it in 2006 as having generally good freedom of speech and human rights records,[52] while Freedom House listed Bulgaria as "free" in 2011, giving it scores of 2 for political rights and 2 for civil liberties.[53] 

Bulgaria lies between latitudes 41° and 45° N, and longitudes 22° and 29° E.

Geographically and in terms of climate, Bulgaria features notable diversity, with the landscape ranging from the Alpine snow-capped peaks in Rila, Pirin and the Balkan Mountains to the mild and sunny Black Sea coast; from the typically continental Danubian Plain (ancient Moesia) in the north to the strong Mediterranean climatic influence in the valleys of Macedonia and in the lowlands in the southernmost parts of Thrace.

Sandstone formations near Melnik, southern Bulgaria 

The Black Sea as seen from Medni Rid peak near Burgas.  Relief and natural resources

About 30% of the land is made up of plains, while plateaus and hills account for 41%.] The mountainous southwest of the country has two alpine ranges — Rila (where mount Musala, at 2,925 meters (9,596 ft), is located) and Pirin, and further east stand the lower but more extensive Rhodope Mountains. The Balkan mountain chain runs west-east through the middle of the country, north of the Rose Valley. Hilly countryside and plains lie to the southeast, along the Black Sea coast, and along Bulgaria's main river, the Danube, to the north.

Bulgaria has large deposits of bauxite, copper, lead, zinc, bismuth and manganese. Smaller deposits exist of iron, gold, silver, uranium, chromite, nickel, and others. Bulgaria has abundant non-metalliferous minerals such as rock-salt, gypsum, kaolin and marble.
Hydrography and climate

The country has a dense network of about 540 rivers, most of them—with the notable exception of the Danube—short and with low water-levels.[56] Most rivers flow through mountainous areas. The longest river located solely in Bulgarian territory, the Iskar, has a length of 368 kilometers (229 mi). Other major rivers include the Struma and the Maritsa in the south.


Some 20 nesting couples of the Eastern Imperial Eagle exist in Bulgaria, and their number is gradually growing.[57] 
Bulgaria overall has a temperate climate, with cold winters and hot summers. The barrier effect of the Balkan Mountains has some influence on climate throughout the country – northern Bulgaria experiences lower temperatures and receives more rain than the southern lowlands.

Precipitation averages about 630 millimeters (24.8 in) per year. In the lowlands rainfall varies between 500 and 800 millimeters (19.7 and 31.5 in), and in the mountain areas between 1,000 and 2,500 millimeters (39.4 and 98.4 in) of rain falls per year. Drier areas include Dobrudja and the northern coastal strip, while the higher parts of the Rila, Pirin, Rhodope Mountains, Stara Planina, Osogovska Mountain and Vitosha receive the highest levels of precipitation.
Environment and wildlife

Bulgaria has signed and ratified the Kyoto protocol[59] and has achieved a 30% reduction of carbon dioxide emissions from 1990 to 2009, completing the protocol's objectives.[60] However, pollution from outdated factories and metallurgy works, as well as severe deforestation (mostly caused by illegal logging), continue to be major problems.[61] Urban areas are particularly affected mostly due to energy production from coal-based powerplants and automobile traffic, while pesticide usage in the agriculture and antiquated industrial sewage systems have resulted in extensive soil and water pollution with chemicals and detergents. In addition, Bulgaria remains the only EU member which does not recycle municipal waste,[66] although an electronic waste recycling plant was put in operation in June 2010. The situation has improved in recent years, and several government-funded programs have been initiated in order to reduce pollution levels.

Three national parks, 11 nature parks and 17 biosphere reserves exist on Bulgaria's territory. Nearly 35% of its land area consists of forests, where some of the oldest trees in the world – such as Baikushev's Pine and the Granit oakhave grown. The brown bear and the jackal are prominent mammals, while the Eurasian lynx, the Eastern imperial eagle and the European mink have small, but growing populations.

Denmark [1] is a country in Scandinavia. The main part of it is Jutland, a peninsula north of Germany, but also with a number of islands, including the two major ones, Zealand and Funen, in Østersøen Sea between Jutland and Sweden. 

Once the seat of Viking raiders and later a major north European power, Denmark has evolved into a modern, prosperous nation that is participating in the general political and economic integration of Europe. However, the country has opted out of European Union's Maastricht Treaty, the European monetary system (EMU), and issues concerning certain internal affairs. 

Denmark is also the birthplace of one of the world's most popular toys, Lego. There is no other better place in the world where one can buy Lego bricks than at the Legoland theme park in Billund. 

These days the Danish Vikings have parked their ships in the garage, and put the helmets on the shelves, and along with the other Scandinavian nations, have forged a society that is often seen as a benchmark of civilization; with progressive social policies, a commitment to free speech so strong it put the country at odds with much of the world during the 2006 cartoon crisis, a liberal social-welfare system and, according to The Economist, one the most commercially competitive. Top it off with a rich, well-preserved cultural heritage, and the Danes legendary sense of design and architecture, and you have one intriguing holiday destination. 

“My life is a lovely story, happy and full of incident.” — Hans Christian Andersen 

Denmark is home to the 'lowest-highest' point in Europe; but what that exactly entails is somewhat uncertain. Ejer Baunehøj, in the Lake District region south-west of Aarhus, seems to be the highest natural point (171m with a large tower built on top to commemorate the fact), although Yding Skovhøj, some 3km away stands 2m higher owing to an ancient burial mound. Either way, the 213m tall Søsterhøj Transmission Tower (1956), with its top 315m above sea level is technically the highest point in Denmark! 

Sports are popular in Denmark, with football reigning supreme in popularity and counted as the national sport, followed by Gymnastics, Handball and Golf. 

Another trait of Danish culture as any tourist pamphlet will tell you, is "Hygge", translating into cosy or snug. Danes themselves will be quick to point out this is somehow a unique Danish concept, which is hardly in tune with reality, but it does probably take a more prominent place in the culture, than in many other countries. It usually involves low key dinners in peoples home, with long conversations over candlelight and red wine in the company of friends and family, but the word is broadly used for social interactions. 

Another important aspect of Danish culture, is understatement and modesty, which not only prominent in the Danish behavioural patterns. It is also very much an important trait in the famous Danish design, which dictates strict minimalism and functionalism over flashiness, something that transfers well to the Danish people as well. 

The Danes are a fiercely patriotic bunch, but in a sneakingly low-key kind of way. They will warmly welcome visitors to show of the country, which they are rightly proud of, but any criticism - however constructive - will not be taken lightly, although most Danes will be happily spend hours to prove you wrong over a Carlsberg beer, rather than becoming hostile - it won't get you far though, and if you manage to convince anyone of any other flaws than the taxes are too high, the weather is too bad or other trivialities, you should immediately return home and run for a political office. For the same reasons, outsiders on long term stays, are by many viewed with a certain amount of suspicion, as the homogeneous society is often thought to be the key to Denmark's successes, you will often hear resident foreigners complain about a constant pressure to become ever more Danish, and the anti immigrant Danish Peoples Party have seen increasing popularity over the years, taking 13% of the votes at the latest election, making it Denmark's 3rd largest political party.  

Rapeseed fields and windmills is a common sight in the Danish summer, pictured: ÆrøDenmark is often praised as being the one of the greenest countries in the world, but apart from the ubiquitous bikes, the individual Danes are surprisingly nonchalant about the environment despite their reputation, and actually contribute as many greenhouse emissions as most other nationalities. As with so many other things, it is thought as a collective responsibility, and have safely been played into the hands of the government, which in turn with great success under Social Democratic leadership enacted a series of reforms, mainly green taxation, between 1993-2001, that made Danish society as a whole (especially in industrial production) one of the most energy efficient in the world, as it turned out it was also good business, and green technology has become of the country's largest exports, including fields like thermostats, wind turbines and home insulation. Because of this, green policies enjoys unusually broad support among the people and the entire political spectrum. 20% of energy productions comes from renewable energy, mainly wind power, a feat mainly made possible by the common Nordic energy market and the massive hydro energy resources in Norway and Sweden, which can easily be regulated up and down to balance the unreliable wind production.

The Republic of Estonia lies in Northern Europe and is a small territory with distinct seasonal attractions. Many tourists choose to visit Estonia during the summer season, although the harsh and snowy winters afford their very own choice of recreational activities, such as ice skating, skiing and even fishing.
Estonia is edged by Latvia, the Russian Federation, the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic Sea. The first settlers arrived at the beginning of the 12th century and many communities soon evolved around the main rivers and their tributaries, such as the Narva and the Parnu. During the mid to late 20th century, Soviet forces occupied much of Estonia until the country finally achieved its independence in 1991, subsequently joining the European Union in the spring of 2004.
Many of the largest and most notable cities in Estonia are scattered around the coastline, such as the ports of Haapsalu, Kunda, Muuga and Paldiski. The capital city of Tallinn stands on the northern coast of Estonia and to the south of the Gulf of Finland, in the province of Harjumaa. Also the country's biggest city, Tallinn is a true gem and boasts many quality sights, such as the historic city centre around the Toompea hill, where attractive cobblestone streets and medieval sights are just waiting to be explored.
Tartu is Estonia's second-biggest city and is sited on the south-eastern side of Estonia, within the Tartumaa area. Very much a student city, Tartu boasts a large and historic university, which was founded in the early 1630s and is amongst the oldest universities in the whole of Europe.

Finland is the big surprise of the Nordic countries, a natural wonderland with more trees than people and more islands than any other nation in the world. With endless miles of wilderness and 188,000 lakes on their doorstep, the Finns are uniquely in tune with their surroundings. Even committed urbanites retreat to wooden cottages in the country during the brief, warm summers to swim and fish in the lakes and gather wild berries and mushrooms in the woods, before unwinding with a sauna and a glass of kossu (Finnish vodka).

The culture of the Finns has been shaped by the historic tug-of-war between Sweden and Russia, a story written large in the language and customs of Karelia and the Swedish-speaking regions of Åland and Ostrobothnia. Even the Finnish language is something of an anomaly, more closely related to Hungarian than to any other language. In the far north, Lapland is dominated by the hardy culture of the Sámi, rugged reindeer herders who have been following a semi-nomadic existence for thousands of years. Finland's most famous contribution to world culture is the sauna - the country has a staggering 1.6 million of them.

Around 10% of Finland is covered by water and 69% of the country is covered by forests, providing a natural adventure playground for trekkers, mountain-bikers, cross-country skiers, fishermen and watersports enthusiasts. Around 8,000 sq km (3,088 sq miles) are protected by Finland's 35 national parks, providing fantastic opportunities to spot birds, reindeer, elks and bears.

In modern times, the Finns have become famous for their technological innovations - this is the home of Nokia - and their flair for design. The reputations of architect Alvar Aalto and the Marimekko design studio extend far beyond these shores. The Finns are also famous for their party spirit, celebrated with gusto during Finland's festivals and the endless days of midsummer, when the sun barely dips below the horizon. During the snow-dazzled winters, life continues at full pace with the aid of snow tyres, skis and dog sleds.

Southwestern seaside city Turku has the chance to impress the whole continent as a European Capital of Culture for 2011

France is one of the world's leading tourist destinations. and it's not hard to understand why. France has it all - or
more or less. It has tourist sights for all tastes; it has some of the greatest beaches in Europe, as well as the highest mountains and the finest historic monuments, the most beautiful cities, the most idyllic countryside, the most magnificent castles, the finest rivers, and plenty more, not to mention some of the best restaurants and the finest wines and more hotels than any other country in Europe. France has something for everyone, which is one of the reasons why it remains the world's number one tourist destination. It has magnificent holiday opportunities for everything from a short weekend city break, in places such as Paris, Nice or Bordeaux, to a relaxed family holiday in a gite in the countryside, a week or two's relaxation by the seaside, or an energetic break hiking, climbing, kayaking or cycling in France's great outdoors.  If you have all the time in the world, you may not need to plan your holiday in France, you can just wander along at your own leisurely pace, and it will be a wonderful and varied experience. French museums and art galleries - which contrary to popular belief are not all located in Paris - offer a magnificent collection of works of art and artefacts; and for those for whom a holiday is anopportunity to discover Europe's historic heritage, France's great cathedrals, medieval castles, and thousands of other ancient monuments are a treasure trove waiting to be discovered. For themed breaks, the châteaux of the Loire (in the Centre region of France) are an obvious choice; among the many other historic sites, consider discovering the Roman remains of Provence , the medieval bastide towns of the southwest, or the castles and caves of the Dordogne. There are even some scenic steam railways for people who enjoy a trip down memory lane. Check out the regional guides for information on sights, monuments and tourist attractions in each area. in July and August, France's Mediterranean beaches tend to be pretty packed; this is particularly the case in the famous resorts of Provence and the French Riviera. By contrast, the long sandy beaches of the Languedoc offer much more legroom. Away from the resorts, Brittany offers plenty of good beaches, with the added fun of tides and good waves; and France's Atlantic coast, south of the Loire, has plenty of long sandy beaches, in the regions of Poitou-Charentes and Aquitaine. South of Bordeaux, there are mile upon mile of fine  beaches. For more information see guide to the French coast.If you want the life, culture and bustle of the big city, go to Paris. But  France is a lot more than Paris.There are plenty of places in deepest rural France
that are still very much off the beaten track; and for camping holidays, gite holidays, or for those who are content to put up in small rural inns, several regions in France offer wonderful holiday opportunities away from it all. Five French departments (counties) that are particularly worth checking out are the Aveyron (Midi Pyrenees region), the Haute Loire (Auvergne), the Corrèze (Limousin), the Jura (Franche Comté) and the Vosges (Lorraine): all these departments include sparsely populated areas, attractive scenery, and plenty of leisure opportunities - or just some greatplaces to sit back with a glass of wine, relax, and enjoy the peace and quiet. France has an extensive network of motorways, and many of them
offer relatively relaxed driving conditions, except at peak periods. Off the motorways, driving on France's backroads
can be a way to discover motoring as it used to be, a pleasurable experience and a way to discover the country.
The French head of state is the President, elected by universal suffrage (? 2012 elections) : the president governs through a Council of Ministers and a parliament made up of two chambers, the National Assembly (lower house) and the Senate (upper house).  Metropolitan France (France in Europe) has a population of slightly over 62 million, a little more than that of the United Kingdom. Surface area: with a surface area of 547,030 km², or 211,209 sq. miles, metropolitan
France is twice the size of the UK, and slightly smaller than the state of Texas. It is the biggest nation in
western Europe.. France has land borders with Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Spain and Andorra.
It is also bordered by the North Sea, the English Channel, the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean. The capital and the nation's largest city is Paris. Apart from Paris by far the largest urban area in France, other major cities are Lyon,Marseille, Lille and Toulouse. Metropolitan France (France in Europe) is divided, administratively, into 22 regions, and 96 counties, known as departments. The official language is French, though regional languages such as Breton and Alsacian are making a comeback. One of the oldest nations in Europe, France - which the Romans called Gaul - is also a country with a very rich cultural and environmental and There is no official religion in France; France is a secular republic.
However about about two thirds of French people say they are Catholics, and 2% Protestants. Less than 10% of French
Catholics are regular church-goers. There is a sizeable Islamic minority. There are churches in all French towns
and most villages.France's currency is the Euro, and most garages, hotels and shops in France accept credit cards,
though may not always accept swipe cards without a microchip. The cost of living in France is fairly similar to
neighbouring countries, though some things (like supermarket food) may be more expensive. Staying in Paris
can be expensive - as can staying on the Riviera, particularly during the peak tourist periods.On the other
hand, fruit, wine, travel, hotels and restaurants tend to be cheaper than they are in the United Kingdom,
particularly in rural areas, and there are plenty of ways of avoiding tourist traps. The climate in France is quite
varied, but generally west European - on the whole a bit warmer than the UK, a bit cooler than Spain . Don't expect
to find summer in winter in the South of France!In spite of the great variety of food and cuisine to be found in
France, some things like the "baguette" the famous French bread stick, change little from one region to another;
you'll find baguettes of all qualities in all regions, varying from the absolutely delicious, to the hard and tasteless. Yet a fresh baguette, coming warm from a traditional bakery, is surely one of the most delicious forms of bread to be found anywhere in the world! There are many different types of French bread, but tasty baguettes can be bought all over France, and a trip to the local "boulangerie" is often one of the daily highlights of a holiday in France. But do not confuse the "boulangerie" with the bread-counter in a supermarket! Indeed, the pre-frozen "fresh-baked" bread counters in supermarkets are not even allowed, by law, to call themselves "boulangeries".  Then there's wine. France is one of the world's great wine producing countries, and a country with a vast range of wines, from heavy Mediterranean reds to light fruity sparkling whites, via less well known varieties including "grey wine" (vin gris) and "yellow wine" (vin jaune).
learn about the wines of France; Bordeaux, Burgundy and Champagne are just the tip of the iceberg;a wine guide
takes you through these and all the other wine regions of France

Today’s visitors to Greece have the opportunity to trace the “fingerprints” of Greek history from the Paleolithic
Era to the Roman Period in the hundreds of archaeological sites, as well as in the archaeological museums and
collections that are scattered throughout the country.The first traces of human habitation in Greece appeared
during the Paleolithic Age (approx. 120000 - 10000 B.C.).During the Neolithic Age that followed (approx. 7000 -
3000 B.C.), a plethora of Neolithic buildings spread throughout the country. Buildings and cemeteries have been
discovered in Thessaly (Sesklo, Dimini), Macedonia, the Peloponnese, etc.The beginning of the Bronze Age (approx.
3000-1100 B.C.) is marked by the appearance of the first urban centers in the Aegean region (Poliochni on Limnos).
Flourishing settlements were found on Crete, Mainland Greece, the Cyclades and the Northeastern Aegean, regions
where characteristic cultural patterns developed.At the beginning of the 2nd Millennium B.C., organized palatial
societies appeared on Minoan Crete, resulting in the development of the first systematic scripts. The Minoans, with
Knossos Palace as their epicenter, developed a communications network with races from the Eastern Mediterranean
region, adopted certain elements and in turn decisively influenced cultures on the Greek mainland and the islands
of the Aegean. On Mainland Greece, the Mycenean Greeks –taking advantage of the destruction caused on Crete by the
volcanic eruption on Santorini (around 1500 B.C.)- became the dominant force in the Aegean during the last
centuries of the 2nd Millennium B.C.. The Mycenean acropolises (citadels) in Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Thiva, Glas,
Athens and Iolcus, then comprised the centers of the bureaucratically organized kingdoms.
The extensive destruction of the Mycenean centers around 1200 B.C. led to the decline of the Mycenean civilization
and caused the population to migrate to the coastal regions of Asia Minor and Cyprus (1st Greek colonization).After
approximately two centuries of economic and cultural inactivity, which also became known as the Dark Years (1150 -
900 B.C.), the Geometric Period then followed (9th - 8th Century B.C.). This was the beginning of the Greek
Renaissance Years. This period was marked by the formation of the Greek City-States, the creation of the Greek
alphabet and the composition of the Homeric epics (end of the 8th Century B.C.).The Archaic Years that subsequently
followed (7th - 6th Century B.C.) were a period of major social and political changes. The Greek City-States
established colonies as far as Spain to the west, the Black Sea to the north and N. Africa to the south (2nd Greek
colonization) and laid the foundations for the acme during the Classical Period. The Classical Years (5th - 4th
Century B.C.) were characterized by the cultural and political dominance of Athens, so much so that the second half
of the 5th Century B.C. was subsequently called the “Golden Age” of Pericles. With the end of the Peloponnesian War
in 404 B.C., Athens lost its leading role.
New forces emerged during the 4th Century B.C. The Macedonians, with Philip II and his son Alexander the Great,
began to play a leading role in Greece. Alexander’s campaign to the East and the conquest of all the regions as far
as the Indus River radically changed the situation in the world, as it was at that time.After the death of
Alexander, the vast empire he had created was then divided among his generals, leading to the creation of the
kingdoms that would prevail during the Hellenistic Period (3rd - 1st Century B.C.). In this period the Greek City-
States remained more or less autonomous, but lost much of their old power and prestige. The appearance of the
Romans on the scene and the final conquest of Greece in 146 B.C. forced the country to join the vast Roman Empire.
During the Roman occupation period (1st Century B.C. - 3rd Century A.D.), most of the Roman emperors, who admired
Greek culture, acted as benefactors to the Greek cities, and especially Athens. Christianity, the new religion that
would depose Dodekatheon worshipping, then spread all over Greece through the travels of Apostle Paul during the
1st Century A.D.The decision by Constantine the Great to move the capital of the empire from Rome to Constantinople
(324 A.D.), shifted the focus of attention to the eastern part of the empire. This shift marked the beginning of
the Byzantine Years, during which Greece became part of the Byzantine Empire.
After 1204, when Constantinople was taken by Western crusaders, parts of Greece was apportioned out to western
leaders, while the Venetians occupied strategic positions in the Aegean (islands or coastal cities), in order to
control the trade routes. The reoccupation of Constantinople by the Byzantines in 1262 marked the last stages of
the empire’s existence.The Ottomans gradually began to seize parts of the empire from the 14th Century A.D., and
completed the breakup of the empire with the capture of Constantinople in 1453. Crete was the final area of Greece
that was occupied by the Ottomans in 1669. Around four centuries of Ottoman domination then followed, up to the
beginning of the Greek War of Independence in 1821. Numerous monuments from the Byzantine Years and the Ottoman
Occupation Period have been preserved, such as Byzantine and Post-Byzantine churches and monasteries, Ottoman
buildings, charming Byzantine and Frankish castles, various other monuments as well as traditional settlements,
quite a few of which retain their Ottoman and partly Byzantine structure.
The result of the Greek War of Independence was the creation of an independent Greek Kingdom in 1830, but with
limited sovereign land. During the 19th C. and the beginning of the 20th C., new areas with compact Greek
populations were gradually inducted into the Greek State. Greece’s sovereign land would reach its maximum after the
end of Word War I in 1920, with the substantial contribution of then Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos. The
Greek State took its current form after the end of World War II with the incorporation of the Dodecanese Islands.In
1974, after the seven-year dictatorship period a referendum was held and the government changed from a
Constitutional Monarchy to a Presidential Parliamentary Democracy, and in 1981 Greece became a member of the
European Community/Union.

Hungary – with its striking city of Budapest, remote villages, gorgeous wine regions is a country that is easy and pleasurable to explore.
Hungary might not be what you expect from an eastern European country. Because it opened its borders to the West before many of its neighbors, it also had a head start on hospitality, welcoming visitors with its rich and varied cuisine, gorgeous wine regions and steamy thermal spas. From the striking capital of Budapest, curving along the grand Danube, to its remote villages, known for their superb folk art, Hungary's attractions are easy and pleasurable to explore.
When interest in traveling to eastern Europe began to increase, the growth at first put a strain on Hungary's tourism infrastructure. However, in recent years, Budapest and many other areas have countered the surge in tourism with a greater supply of hotels. In fact, Budapest has the largest number of first-class hotels of any eastern 
European capital, which is why it has developed into an important city for regional business. If big-city travel isn't what you're after, Lake Balaton is ideal for water-lovers, wine enthusiasts will want to visit Villany or 
Tokaj, and Hortobagy attracts those seeking traditional Hungarian culture. There is also a lot of first-class equestrian tourism throughout the country. Hungary is the smoothest introduction to travel in eastern Europe, and despite its increasing modernization, it remains as exotic and appealing as its traditional folk melodies.

Think of Iceland and there are several familiar associations: hip Reykjavík, the beautiful therapeutic Blue Lagoon, or perhaps our musical exports Björk or Sigur Rós. But this land of boiling mud pools, spurting geysers, glaciers and waterfalls is also an adventure playground. Its breathtaking landscape is an inspiration to artists and photographers. Iceland is the least densely populated country in Europe, with a pure, unpolluted and truly magical landscape. Iceland’s summers are surprisingly warm, lush and green, with days lengthening until midsummer, when the sun dips down to the horizon but never sets. During winter you can marvel at the amazing, undulating green, blue, yellow and pink lights of the aurora in the night sky, and the winters are not as cold as you might imagine. Regardless of when you visit, you can be assured of the warmth of the Icelanders’ welcome and their desire to share their culture and make every effort to ensure that your stay is a pleasant one.

Ireland
There’s good reason why one of Ireland’s national symbols is the emerald shamrock. With some of the most luscious green landscapes on the western side of Europe, Ireland is the place to see over 40 shades of green and arresting scenery such as the Cliffs of Moher. Also brimming over with lively pub life, vibrant urban cities like Dublin and Cork, and everlasting Celtic traditions, Ireland has so much culture to take in.Ireland’s history is richly painted with a series of influential events, including Celtic, Viking and Norman invasions, Christian influence and political unrest, each shaping the country as it is today. Ireland has been inhabited for 9,000 years, but the Celts invaded some 2,500 years ago during the Iron Age, bringing with them some everlasting traditions – language, music and games. While Viking raiders pillaged the country, they are credited with founding some of Ireland’s most prominent cities, including the country’s capital, Dublin.
What better way to start off a tour of Ireland than in the vibrant city of Dublin. Design lovers can enjoy the amazing architecture of the President’s house, Trinity College Library and Custom House. There’s plenty to keep shoppers entertained at St. Georges Street arcade, as well as the many markets that adorn Dublin’s charming streets. For history enthusiasts and culture aficionados, don’t miss the striking Dublin Castle, the Irish Museum of Modern Art and the National Gallery. No matter what your taste, the best way to round it all off is with a pint of Guinness in the social heart of the city, Temple Bar.Venture outside of Dublin and you’ll discover a treasure chest of charming cities and breathtaking landscapes waiting to be explored. Visit Blarney, the home of the legendary Blarney Stone, and kiss the stone to receive the gift of the gab. In Kildare, marvel at the world-class stallions at the Irish National Stud Farm, or soak in the tranquil
atmosphere at the Japanese Garden. In Adare, admire the pretty thatched houses, and in Limerick, don’t miss seeing St. Mary’s Cathedral, King John’s Castle and the Treaty Stone.Blessed with awe-inspiring landscapes, Ireland will surely instil a sense of wonder in you as you admire the true beauty of Mother Nature. Tour the Ring of Kerry and you’ll be greeted by the spectacular scenery of plunging cliffs, pristine lakes, granite mountains and jagged coastlines. The Cliffs of Moher are another unbeatable sight – soaring above the Atlantic Ocean and stretching for eight kilometres, they must be seen to be appreciated. Don’t forget to soak in all the green that surrounds you in Ireland Packed with history, creativity, folk legend, religious devotion and fantastic landscapes, don’t delay in discovering the true magic of Ireland.

TRAVELLING IN ITALY
BY AIR The main gateways to Italy are Rome and Milan. Rome’s ‘Leonardo da Vinci’ airport is located at Fiumicino (35 km from the centre The journey time is approximately 45 minutes.Alternatively, Italian Railways operate hourly departures from the airport to theTermini Railway Station in the centre of Rome.Milan has two airports and transfers from either directly and  Journey time from Linate(10 km from the city) takes 15 minutesand Malpensa (46 km from the city) takes about an hour.There is also coach services which operate from both airports to city centre and a rail link from
Malpensa to Milan station (Cadorna) every 30 minutes. BY ROAD OR RAIL If you are travelling around Europe, Italy is easily accessible via major motorway links between France and Switzerland. Regular rail services link Italy with other European cities. First or second class travel is available. Most of the services are non-stop fast trains (Rapido and Pendolino) or Trans Europe Express Trains (TEE).START WITH A CITYPACK When you visit Rome, Florence or Venice,
Holidays Citypacks provide the widest choice of accommodation, combined with a popular sightseeing tour, to help you make the most of your stay. EXPERIENCE THE COUNTRYSIDE BY CAR For total freedom, why not hire a car and see the picture postcard countryside, at your leisure. Driving in Italy is on the right hand side, overtaking on the left. We recommend you carry an international driving license TRAVEL BY TRAIN Travelling by rail is one of the easiest and most cost effective ways to travel around Europe. There is a choice of rail passes,including Eurail, Eurostar, Britrail, Italian Rail Passes and most of the single country European Passes. Individual sectors within Italy and Europe can also be
booked before you depart Australia.NORTH FROM ROME Airlines, trains and buses link all major cities with Rome, however, once at your destination, if you plan to see more of the region, car rental is strongly recommended.CENTRAL ITALY The heartland of Italy, this region is one of the most popular, beckoning tourists with its historical cities and wonderful countryside. From Bologna: Explore the fascinating Emilia-Romagna region, with interesting cities, including Ravenna, Modena, Parma and the popular Adriatic Coast. In Tuscany you are spoilt for choice on where to stay and the style of holiday experience .If you are intending to travel around, taking in all the key destinations,then see Siena, Pisa and San Gimignano. It is worth adding some extra days to your itinerary, to see the vineyards, villages, hamlets
and farmhouses that Tuscany is so famous for.Neighbouring Umbria, offers more medieval towns and villages, surrounded by landscapes of rolling hill vineyards and farmland. It is a little more ‘off the beaten track’ than Tuscany. Stay in Assisi, Spoleto or Orvieto, or one of the many villas throughout the region.NORTHERN ITALY From Genoa: Base yourself in the exclusive harbour resort town of Portofino, or Santa Margherita to discover the rugged Ligurian Coast and the beautiful villages nestled beneath vine covered hills. A popular destination along this coastline is the region of Cinque Terre – an area which refers to five unique villages that ‘cling’ to the edge of steep cliffs. Monterosso al Mare,Vernazza, Corniglia, Manarola and Riomaggiore where once accessible only by sea, however, you can drive narrow roads to each, with Monterosso and Riomaggiore being the most accessible. From Milan: You have quick access to the dramatic alpine scenery and the stunning lakes of Northern Italy – LakesMaggiore, Como and Garda. From Venice: It is a relatively short trip to famous Dolomite Mountains and Lake Garda, or the delights of historic Verona.From Turin: Explore the a diverse area of traditional villages, alpine valleys and the breathtaking scenery of the Parco Nazionale del Gran Paradiso. SOUTH FROM ROME Travelling around Southern Italy involves many contrasts.Wherever you travel, you will enjoy a breathtaking scenery. Join the cosmopolitan set around Naples and the Islands of Capri and Ischia one day, then be in the middle of a remote landscape the next. AROUND THE AMALFI COAST Naples - Pompeii - Sorrento- Positano - Amalfi From Naples: Once you are in Naples, you can travel easily by car, bus or rail around this area. Pompei is a short bus ride. Sorrento can be reached by local private train or bus from Naples and there is also a Hydrofoil service. From Sorrento you can travel on to Positano and Amalfi by bus.If you want to see as much of the Amalfi Coast you can, in the shortest time possible, we recommend the one day tour or two or three day duration coach holidays. The Islands of Capri & Ischia can be reached by boat from Naples (Mergellina), Sorrento, Positano, Amalfi or Salerno. SICILY If you are looking for something different, Sicily is the place to explore. Here you will find famous archeological sites, magnificent beaches and spectacular scenery including the infamous Mount Etna. Travel to Sicily by car, rail and/or ferry from Reggio di Calabria to Messina and from Genoa or Naples to Palermo. The major cities of Sicily are also linked to the north and centre of Italy’s
mainland by frequent air services.Souvenirs & ShoppingCeramics from Umbria, Tuscany and Faenza: glass and laces from Venice:alabaster from Volterra: marble From Carrara: leather goods silk-wear, jewellery,shoes, textiles, clothing and copperware are much sought after. Shops are usually open from 8.30am to 12.30pm and 3.30pm to 7.30pm. Some shops
may be closed on Monday mornings.Tourist Information Travellers to Italy can receive additional information regarding their stay at any of the public tourist organisations, which are located in many cities. These offices can be identified by the initials: ‘APT’, ‘IAT’ or ‘AAPIT’. For more information on road systems and traffic, contact the ACI (AutomobileClub Italia). Their office in Rome is at Via Solferino, 32. Telephone: 06 44595 Bank & Public Holidays During Public Holidays or Religious Feasts, banks, shops and commercial businesses are usually closed: 1 Jan – New Year’s Day; 6 Jan – Epiphany;
6-9 Apr – Easter; 25 Apr – Liberation Day; 1 May – Labour Day; 2 Jun -Festival of Republicca; 15 Aug – Assumption; 1 Nov – All Saint’s Day; 8 Dec –Immaculate Conception; 25 & 26 Dec – Christmas Holiday. In addition to these dates, each city or town will celebrate a public holiday for its own ‘Saint Day.’ Museums & Archeological Sites All museums have different opening hours. Most of them are closed on public holidays and many are closed every Monday. The Vatican Museum in Rome is closed on public holidays and every Sunday, with the exception of the last Sunday of each month, its opening hours vary between 0845-1300 or 0845-1600. Generally throughout Italy, museums charge an admission fee. We
suggest that you check with the museums before planning your visit.Honeymooners. There are  selected a number of properties that would provide ideal honeymooner accommodation and who will offer extra benefits for guests on their honeymoonor silver wedding anniversary. Travelling with children.We understand that travelling with children can mean extra ‘hidden’ costs, so Some of the hotels cater for families by offering quad rooms. Check The policy against each hotel.
Clothing.The temperatures vary greatly between the North and South. For Sightseeing around the major cities and towns during winter, we recommend a light topcoat or raincoat. In the summer, light, tropical attire is recommended. However, strict dress codes apply in many places of worship, where your torso and upper armsmust be covered. Shorts and skirts must reach the knee.

A fascinating country full of ancient history and traditions, attractive countryside and the energetic capital of Riga. Latvia is a small country on the Baltic Sea between Lithuania and Estonia. 
Riga is the country's capital, a beautiful place by the Baltic Sea. It's home to one of the world's largest collections of Art Nouveau buildings. Riga Central Market is one of the biggest in Europe. Amongst the many items on sale here, is pure Baltic amber, used widely in jewellery. Much of the world's amber comes from the Baltic regions. Popular sights in the city include the Dome Cathedral, which is the largest cathedral in the Baltics and was built in the 13 th century. The castle is another draw as is the Freedom monument. The image of Liberty holding three stars in stretched hands has become a potent and important symbol for Latvians. 

There's so much on offer for nature lovers. Ragakapa Nature Park consists of sand dunes with unique pine groves. There's the Poikaini Forest, with its mysterious ancient sacrificial sites, the Riezupes Sand Caves, which is the longest cave network in the Baltics. Not forgetting Alek, which is Latvia's highest waterfall, and so much more. 
The resort town of Jurmala is an arresting sight. There are spacious beaches, turquoise seas, forests and attractive wooden houses. 
Music lovers might like to make their way to Liepaja. It's the country's third largest city and holds its biggest rock festival, ‘Liepajas Dzintars.' There is also an up and coming music scene here.
There are lots of direct flights and buses from many European cities. Ferries to Riga start out from Travemünde in Germany and Stockholm in Sweden. Travelling inside the country is easy, as buses go to many places. There's also a reasonable train network. 
Latvia has a temperate climate. Summers can be warm, and winters very

Liechtenstein, a tiny principality between Austria and Switzerland, it covers an area of 160 square kilometres, and is full of Gothic splendour and spectacular scenery.

Vaduz is the country's capital and its main tourist attraction is the castle. In fact it's the most popular site in the country. It's perched high on a rock, looks like something out of a fairytale and offers terrific views of the area. The castle is the home of the reigning Prince of Liechenstein and his family, and is therefore not open to tourists. The castle dates back to the 12 th century and has been in the possession of the Royal Family since 1712. Vaduz is quite a lively city, though nowhere near as busy as its counterparts in other European countries. There are pavement cafes and significant cultural attractions. There's the neo-Gothic parish church of Vaduz, the postage stamp museum, the National Museum and the Museum of Fine Arts. When you're tired of sight-seeing, pop into the wine cellars of the Prince of Liechtenstein to taste some of their award-winning wines. Many people who visit the city get their passports marked with a souvenir stamp. 

Elsewhere in the country, the Malbun ski resort, high in the mountains, is a popular attraction, with skiing and snowboarding slopes. During daylight hours there are buses from Vaduz that take you all the way to the slopes. 


The real joy of the country is the scenery, so head for the mountains, as high as you can go, and breathe it all in. 

There isn't an airport in Liechtenstein, so direct travel is difficult, but not impossible. The nearest airports are Friedrichshafen, in Germany and Zürich in Switzerland. Trains run from these places to the Swiss border towns of Buchs and Sargans, respectively. Buses will then transport you to Vaduz. The country doesn't have its own rail network, although there's a tourist train around Vaduz. Most travelling is done via the roads. 

The country has a temperate climate with warm, sometimes wet summers, and mild winters.

Before coming to Lithuania, try to answer to yourself what you wish to see and do here. Despite being a relatively small country, Lithuania has much to offer to a visitor, from many types of leisure activities and entertainment to a wide list – of around 1000 – of sightseeing objects. Therefore, we recommend you try to see more of the country, not just its principal towns.
You will see that the condition of roads is truly good here for travelling by car or that you can reach practically any place of the country by train or bus. Try to stop off at UNESCO and national heritage sites, visit different ethnographic regions, taste authentic meals, stop by valuable cultural and architectural sites and museums, have a walk in parks, enjoy the beauty of landscape dotted with lakes and rivers.
We have much to offer also to those who prefer spending their leisure time actively. They can take a canoe down a fast-flowing river or make a bicycle tour of the country, go hang- or motor-gliding or fly on board of a hot air balloon.
Citizens of 78 states do not need visas to come here, yet some of them must hold diplomatic, service, special or biometric passports. Therefore, before coming, be sure to find out if a visa is required and how it can be obtained.
Before and during your stay in Lithuania, take a minute to learn some key phrases in the Lithuanian language and do not forget such important information as speed limits applicable on country roads, how to find addresses and routes, how to call a trusted taxi and how to seek assistance and obtain required information.

The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (Luxembourgish: Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg, French:Grand-Duché de Luxembourg, German: Großherzogtum Luxemburg), is a landlocked country in the Benelux bordered by Belgium, France and Germany, lying at the crossroad of Germanic and Latin cultures. It is the only Grand Duchy in the world and is the second-smallest of the European Union member states. 

With a successful steel, finance and high technology industry, a strategic location at the heart of Western Europe, more natural beauty than you might expect given its size, and as one of the top three richest countries in the world, Luxembourg enjoys a very high standard of living and has prices to match! 

The city of Luxembourg proper was founded in 963, and its strategical position soon promised it a great fate. Luxembourg was at the crossroad of Western Europe and became heavily fortified, and you can still see the extensive city walls and towers that are its most distinctive cityscape. Due to its key position, Luxembourg was raised up to a Duchy that included a much larger territory that stretched in present-day Belgium, Netherlands, Germany and France. The powerful Habsburg family kept its hand on it until the late Renaissance times. 

After the Napoleonic wars, the Duchy of Luxembourg was granted to the Netherlands. It had a special status as a member of the German confederacy and the citadel was armed with a Prussian garrison: Luxembourg was still a strategic lock that everybody aimed at controlling. It was granted the title "Grand Duchy" in 1815 but lost some territories that are today parts of France and Germany. 

During the course of the 19th century, developments in warfare and the appearance of artillery made Luxembourg obsolete as a stronghold, and it became little more than a rural territory of no strategic interest whatsoever. The Germans relinquished their rights over it and moved out their garrison, its western half was granted to Belgium in 1839, and the Netherlands granted it complete independence in 1867. Since then, Luxembourg arose from a poor country of fields and farms to a modern economy relying on financial services and high-tech industries. 

Overrun by Germany in both world wars, Luxembourg was one of the major battlefields of the Battle of the Bulge in the winter of 1944-1945, a story well documented in the museum at Diekirch. The state ended its neutrality in 1948 when it entered into the Benelux Customs Union and it joined NATO the following year. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the six founding countries of the European Economic Community (later the European Union) and, in 1999, it joined the euro currency area. 

Modified continental with mild winters, although January and February can get very cold and temperatures can fall to as low as -15°C. The summer can be very hot in Luxembourg, with temperatures in July and August reaching around 30+°C. 

Mostly gently rolling uplands with broad, shallow valleys; uplands to slightly mountainous in the north; steep slope down to Moselle flood plain in the south. 

National holiday : National Day falls on the 23rd June. (Birthday of Grand Duchess Charlotte moved by 6 months to coincide with the warmer weather)

Maltese Islands were inhabited since 5200 BC in the Stone Age, by nomad hunters most probably coming from Sicily. Since its Prehistory, Malta has been shaped by several civilisations throughout the centuries: it has been colonised by Greeks, falling then under the control of Carthage and then Rome. Between the populations that influenced Malta the most with their culture there are definitely the Arabs and the Normans, who ruled the archipelago respectively for 220 and 440 years.
The Knights of St. John in Malta
Malta is universally known for the Order of the Knights of St. John, originally instituted to cure wounded soldiers at the crusades, they were given the island of Malta by Charles V. They introduced Italian language on the island, built the city of Valletta and plenty of fortifications, and developed the cultural heritage. They resisted the Great Siege of the Ottoman Empire, but surrended to the French conquest of Napoleon on his way to Egypt.
History - knight of Malta
Malta as a British Colony
Malta voluntarily became part of the British Empire in 1800, and its strategic location in the Mediterranean Sea increased its importance especially after the opening of the Suez Canal. Malta was under the protection of Britain during the Second World War, but it was still heavily bombarded by Italian and German aviation.
Malta's Independence and EU membership

Malta considered forwarding integration with Britain, but after subsequent British government, Malta was declared independent on the 21st of September, 1964 and a Republic on the 13rd December, 1979. The country flourished during the last decades of the twentieth century and Malta joined the European Union in 2004 and the Eurozone in 2008.

Principality of Monaco
An independent sovereign state located between the foot of the Southern Alps and the Mediterranean, the Principality of Monaco borders on several French villages: La Turbie, Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, Cap d'Ail et Beausoleil.
[General view of Monaco, Monte-Carlo]
In ancient history, the Rock of Monaco was a shelter for primitive populations. history of Monaco itself really started in the 13th Century. On 10th June 1215, the Genoan family of the Gibelins laid the first stone of the castle, which is still today the Prince's Palace. To attract new inhabitants, the initial masters of the Rock offered advantageous conditions to newcomers : territorial concessions, tax exemption. For 700 years, the history of Monaco has been linked to that of the Grimaldi Dynasty which has celebrated in 1997, the anniversary of its accession to the Principality of Monaco.
General view of Monaco, Monte-Carlo
The official language is French, although Italian and English are widely spoken.The traditional Monegasque language, "le Monegù", is spoken amongst elders and is taught in all local schools. The currency is Euro. Monegasque coins are used.
"Deo Juvante" (With God's Help) is the motto of Monaco and its Princes. Catholicism is the state religion. However, freedom of worship is guaranteed by the Constitution and several religions are represented in Monaco.The National Holiday is celebrated on 19th November every year. The national telephone code for Monaco is '377' and telecommunications are very efficient. Monaco prints its own stamps.
Based on the latest official census, there are 35,646 inhabitants in the Principality of Monaco of which 7,634 are Monegasque, 10,029 are French and 6,596 are Italian. Over 125 nationalities are represented. Monaco and the neighbouring French areas represent approximately 95,515 people.
Benefiting from an ideal geographical location, the Principality of Monaco enjoys very mild winters and remarkably sunny summers, which tend not to be exceedingly hot. In fact, the results of a 60-year study show that the average temperature is 16° C, rain falls on less than 87 days per year and the sun shines 7 hours a day on average. Sea temperatures vary from 11° C in the winter to over 26° C in the middle of summer. Thanks to its Mediterranean climate, Monaco is a pleasant place to live all year round. In addition, it is worth noting that ski resorts in the Alps are only an hour's drive away. For further information, refer to the Key Figures page.

The Netherlands is a constitutional monarchy. Queen Beatrix is the head of state. The capital city is Amsterdam and the seat of government is The Hague. The Netherlands measures 41,528 square kilometres, 7,745 of which is water.

The highest point is 321 metres above sea level and the lowest 6.7 metres below sea level. The Netherlands has a temperate marine climate. The average temperatures are 16ºC (61º F) in summer and 3ºC (37ºF) in winter. The population of the Netherlands is 16.3 million, with 7.1 million in employment. The official language is Dutch and approximately 75% of all Dutch people speak some English. The national currency is the euro.

The Netherlands is number six in the world rankings of export and investment nations. Its most important trading partners are Germany, Belgium and Luxembourg, France and the United Kingdom. Machinery and transport equipment account for the largest share of exports. In 2005, 370 million tonnes of cargo passed through the port of Rotterdam, while Amsterdam Airport Schiphol handled 1.4 million tonnes of cargo and over 44 million passengers.  More than 10.7 million people visited the Netherlands from abroad for business or on holiday. Foreign tourists spend approximately 7.5 billion euro per year during their visits.

Norway is a long stretched country, reaching from an idyllic rocky coast with skerries in the south, to a wild and untamed meeting between land and sea in the north. The south coast is home to the Norwegian summer, the north is home to the Sami. Travel along the Norwegian coast and experience it all.

Life in the capital of Oslo, or the Hanseatic city of Bergen on the west coast, and life in a coastal fishing village in the Arctic seem like two different worlds. You can try both within a few days.

Fjords and mountains
On your way north you travel through untouched wilderness where the mountains dive hundreds of metres into the world famous fjords.

You see small farms spread out in the countryside, not clustered in villages like in the rest of Europe. Spend a night or two at one of them, and get to know a farmer. Farm holidays are very popular.

Midnight sun and northern lights
Further north you join wildlife safaris to see whales and eagles. During summer the sun never sets in Northern Norway, and in winter the magical northern lights light up the totally dark sky. Furthest north, you stand on the North Cape, the northernmost point on mainland Europe, and feel the breeze from the North Pole.

Poland is a big central European country, located upon the Vistula, Oder and the Baltic Sea. Beautiful nature, historical monuments, respect for traditions, intriguing modern times, and hospitality are those elements that make our country very attractive for foreign visitors. The omnipresent modernity of contemporary Poland goes hand in handwith full respect for traditions and cultural differences of its regions.

Polish landscape is very diversified. The south is occupied by the Carpathian and Sudeten Mountains. Lowlands and uplands stretch throughout central Poland. The northern part of the country with its Masurian and Pomeranian landlakes is slightly rolling, well forested and dotted with thousands of lakes. The sandy beaches of the Baltic coast are found further north.

Our eventful history and the central location in Europe, where influences of many nations and faiths meet, make Poland a country that fascinates visitors with its material and spiritual culture.

Big Polish cities are the main destination for many tourists. They possess a wealth of historical monuments, host famous people and offervariety of events. Polish cities are visited by businessmen and shoppers, and sometimes just play the role of an attractive stopover for travelers on their way elsewhere.
Tour of Poland is a must today. Modern hospitality and recreation facilities, cozy pensions and private rooms, campsites, mountain refugesand youth hostels, riverside marinas, water sports gear for hire, golf courses and many other top attractions are awaiting those who have chosen Poland as their destination.

Portugal
Rediscover the romance of travel with a trip to Portugal, a gem on the Iberian Peninsula that will charm you with its
grand castles, sacred sites and picturesque villages attesting to over 900 years of history. Also blessed with
sun-kissed beaches and dramatic rocky coves, Portugal deserves your admiration for both its natural splendour and
culture- and history-laden cities. Portugal’s rich culture has been shaped by the various civilizations that have passed through the country throughout history. First settled by the Celtic people in the 1st century BC, the lands of the Iberian Peninsula have been invaded by numerous peoples, including the Romans, Moors and Christians, each leaving their marks the country.Lisbon, Portugal’s capital, is packed with historical attractions, Art Nouveau architecture and winding mediaeval streets. Make sure to visit the Belem Tower, which was built in the early 16th century to commemorate the expedition of Portuguese hero Vasco de Gama during the Age of Great Discoveries. Other sights to soak in include the
Monument to the Discoveries and the suspension bridge across the Tagus River, reminiscent of the Golden Gate
Bridge in San Francisco. There are so many more cities that should not be missed in Portugal. Wine enthusiasts should make their way to Oporto, home of the sweet wine Port. Here you’ll also see magnificent bridges, the baroque Church of St. Francis and the grand Stock Exchange. For a sacred experience, visit the pilgrimage city of Fatima, where three young shepherds saw the apparition of the Virgin at a basilica. Evora, Portugal’s most important town in the Renaissance period,
is a unique walled town with a heady mix of sights, such as the macabre Ossuary Chapel and the Roman temple.
It’s so easy to get joyfully lost in the narrow mediaeval streets of some of Portugal’s most charming cities. In picturesque town of Castelo de Vide, you can wander through the narrow alleyways of the Old Jewish Quarter, filled with
whitewashed buildings. In the old Roman town of Coimbra, stroll the ancient streets and visit one of the oldest
universities in the world with its ornate Baroque library.While taking in the historic sights in Portugal, don’t forget the white sandy beaches that paint the coast and draw the crowds. At the Sagres peninsula, you can admire
the view across the wild beauty of the Baleeira Beach. For an escape from the bustle of Lisbon, head to the Sintra
coast, home to rocky coves and some of Portugal’s most pristine beaches.One  can easily sweep the coast of Portugal and discover the hidden charms of its inland cities and see the best of Portugal, from its historic sights to its vivacious
culture, leaving you to relax and immerse yourself in a truly captivating country.

Natural and Cultural are the words that best capture the essence of Romania, a dynamic country rich in history,  art and scenic beauty. Romania offers the traveler countless unique travel experiences waiting to be discovered.

A journey of just three to four hours, by car or train, can take you from the Danube River to beautiful, intact medieval towns in Transylvania; from Bucharest - Romania's capital city - to the Black Sea; from Southern Transylvania to Bucovina or to Maramures.  Take a step back in time as you enter one of the world’s famous painted monasteries in Bucovina, the Sighisoara citadel  or a centuries-old village in Maramures.  Explore Romania's other  architectural treasures  and  experience its vibrant and flourishing arts scene.

Main Attractions
Black Sea Resorts, Castles & Fortresses, Danube Delta, Medieval Towns, The Carpathian Mountains, The Painted Monasteries, Spas, Traditional Villages, World Heritage Sites.
Special Interest
Arts and Crafts, Architecture, Authentic Experiences, Active Vacations, Danube River Cruises, Dracula Legend, Festivals & Events, Food & Wine, Genealogy Searches, Jewish Heritage, Meetings & Incentive, Saxon Heritage, Traditions & Folklore.
Regions and Cities
Transylvania, Banat & Crisana, Bucovina & Moldova, Dobrogea, Maramures, Walachia, Bucharest, Alba Iulia, Arad, Baia Mare, Brasov, Braila, Cluj, Constanta, Craiova, Galati, Iasi, Oradea,
Satu Mare, Sibiu, Sighisoara, Suceava, Timisoara, Targu Jiu, Targu Mures, Tulcea.

Going to Russia is a unique opportunity to get to know its impressive and amazing history, as well as to enjoy its rich culture, its people, its historic monuments, its entertainment, etcetera that wait for their visit.
Russia or the Russian federation is the greatest country worldwide, extends by Europe and by Asia, their coasts extend by the Arctic Ocean until the Pacific Ocean of the North, and in addition it has coast in inner seas like the Caspian Sea, the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea.In the last few years, the Russian government has opened up enormous areas that for decades have been closed to tourism. In Russia, you can learn about the most interesting and rich history of all small cities and inappreciable treasures of its culture. An enormous artistic value represents the magnificent oldest Russian architectonic sets conserved to the present time and reconstructed in its entire splendours thanks to the efforts of the restaurateurs. The white stone cathedrals of centuries XII - XIII, are a sample of the old architecture, reunited in the museums outdoors, unique paintings of the temples made by teachers of diverse schools, beautiful creations of applied teachers of art.Russia is a land of snow and coldest winters, but also of rivers that meander across meadows and a midsummer sun that never sets. You have a chance to explore its land of striking beauty and diversity, from magnificent capitals, Moscow and St. Petersburg, to the measured life of Siberian cities. This is a great country with an array of rivers, forests and towering mountains, it is the adventuresome traveller's dream.

Scotland is permeated with legend and romance. Its ruined castles standing amid fields of heather and 
bracken bespeak a past of heroic struggle. Its two great cities -- the ancient seat of Scottish royalty,
Edinburgh, and even more ancient Glasgow, boasting Victorian splendor -- are among Europe's 
most dynamic centers. And equally alluring is the picturesque countryside, with Highlands, mountains, 
lochs, salmon-filled rivers, incomparable golf courses, and so much more.Scotland (Scottish Gaelic: Alba)  is a country in north-western Europe. Sharing a 60 mile (96 km) long land border with England to the south, and separated from Northern Ireland by the North Channel of the Irish Sea, Scotland is surrounded by the bracing waters of the North Sea to the east, and the North Atlantic Ocean to the west and north. The capital is Edinburgh; the largest city is Glasgow. It is the most administratively independent of the four home nations of the United Kingdom, having retained its own legal, religious and educational institutions when it acceded to the Union in 1707, and since 1999, has had its own separately elected devolved government which deals with exclusively Scottish affairs.Apart from these and several other cities, the popular image of Scotland for most travellers, of course, centres on the "Highlands and Islands" - a wonderfully diverse land, Scotland has much to offer virtually any traveller

Serbia Srbija) [1] is a country located in the Balkans, in Southern Europe. It was a founder and one of six republics forming the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. It is surrounded by Montenegro to the south, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the west, Bulgaria to the southeast, Croatia to the northwest, Hungary to the north, Macedonia and Albania (through Kosovo) to the south, and Romania to the northeast. It is situated on one of the major land routes from Central Europe to Turkey and further on to the Near East. 

Medieval castle in GolubacSerbia is a lovely country, open for tourism all year round. During summer tourists love spending their time in Belgrade and enjoy the nature of many national parks throughout the country. In winter, tourists are warmly welcomed to mountain resorts (one of the most popular being Kopaonik [featured on BBC as one of the best ski destinations in Europe]). There are also many spa resorts such as Sokobanja, Niška Banja and Vrnjacka Banja. 

Serbs are warm people, especially towards tourists. Most Serbs speak some English (seniors, however, are more likely to speak German and/or French), so you will be able to find your way around by asking directions. Most tourists come to Serbia in the summer and you can often hear German, Italian, French and English in the streets of Belgrade, while Slovenian tourists pour for New Year holidays. 

Yugoslavia was such a beautiful country with so many different attractive places that somehow, Serbia was neglected and it is still to be rediscovered not only by visitors, but by many Serbs, too. It is also a varied and beautiful place notwithstanding the fact that it is landlocked. From the plains of Vojvodina, which in winter, remind of the scenes from the film of Dr. Zhivago, to many mountains and lakes or reservoirs and ski resorts of outstanding beauty. 

There were seventeen Roman emperors born in the territory of today's Serbia, and it is well-known that they all left monuments and built palaces in or close to their birthplaces. It may well be that the oldest ever found human settlements in Europe, if not in the world, can be found in country of Serbia. The longest stretch of the river Danube, longer than in any other European country is in Serbia. The giant hydroelectric dam of Djerdap has created a lake stretching for many miles out of the Canyon Djerdap with its famous Roman road to the East build by the Emperor Trajan. 

Serbia is on the crossroads of European history and as such, it is a mix of cultures, ethnicity and religions. Its people, contrary to a recent stigma, are one of the most hospitable and welcoming and recently, Belgrade was voted as one of the up and coming capitals of Europe. It hosted the recent Eurovison song contest and it is the home town of world names like Djokovic, Jankovic and Ivanovic; the ambassadors of New Serbia. There may be more attractive locations elsewhere, but Serbia has a spirit and a soul that is rare to find coupled with melange of different cultures and a gusto for good living.

In the north: continental climate (cold winters and hot, humid summers with well distributed rainfall); central portion: moderate continental climate; and to the south: hot, dry summers and autumns and relatively cold winters with heavy snowfall. 

Extremely varied: to the north, rich fertile plains; to the east, limestone ranges and basins; to the southeast, ancient mountains and hills. Although the region around the town of Mionica has been known for some earthquakes in recent years, these were by no means destructive. The highest point is Ðeravica at 2656 m.

The first Serbian state was formed in the mid 9th century, expanding by the mid 14th century to an empire comprising most of the Balkans. In 1389, the Serbs lost a decisive battle in the Kosovo field against the Ottoman empire. Serbia managed to preserve its freedom for another seventy years, only to be finally overwhelmed by the Turks in 1459. An uprising in the early 1800s that grew in the full scale war (War of Restoration) led to the restoration of Serbian independence in 1815. 

The 1914 Austro-Hungarian invasion of Serbia following the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand by an ethnic Serb high school student precipitated the first World War. In its aftermath in 1918, victorious Serbia gatherd all south Slav lands (Croatia, Slovenia, Slavonia, Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegowina, and Montenegro)into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes; The country's name was changed to Yugoslavia in 1929. Invasion and occupation by Germany and Italy in 1941 was resisted by Yugoslav Army in fatherland (Chetniks), commanded by Lt.-Gen Dragoljub Mihajlovic and communist led guerilla (partisans) who eventually started fighting each other as well as the invaders. The partisans, commanded by Field-Marshal Josip Broz Tito emerged victorious and formed a provisional governement that abolished the monarchy and proclaimed a republic in 1946 after a dubious referendum. At the end of the war, nearly all ethnic Germans left the country. Although pro-Communist, J.B. Tito's new government successfully steered its own delecate path between the Warsaw Pact nations and the West for the next four and a half decades. 

In the early 1990s, post-Tito Yugoslavia began to unravel along ethnic lines: Slovenia, Croatia, and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia all split from the Yugoslav Union in 1991; and Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992. All of efforts to preserve Yugoslavia were ultimately unsuccessful and bloody civil wars broke out in Croatia and in Bosnia. The remaining republics of Serbia and Montenegro declared a new "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia" (FRY) in 1992. Slobodan Milosevic was elected the first president of Serbia. 

In the late 1990s, the conflict with the Albanian separatist movement in Kosovo led to a NATO bombing campaign and direct intervention, which left the placement of Kosovo under a UN administration. Slobodan Milosevic, by this time elected for the president of the federation, lost in the Federal elections in the fall of 2000 to Vojislav Kostunica. The country reestablished its membership in the UN and started preparations to join the EU. 

In 2002, the republics of Serbia and Montenegro began negotiations to forge a looser relationship, which led first to the name change of the nation to "Serbia and Montenegro", then culminated in Montenegro declaring independence in June 2006. More recently, Kosovo unilaterally declared its independence; however, this act remains unrecognised by Serbia and most other countries. 

Independence came on 4 February 2003 (when it changed from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro) or on 5 June 2006 (from the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro to Serbia). 

January 1-2 (New Year's Day), January 7 (Eastern Orthodox Christmas), January 14 (National Holiday (Orthodox New Year), January 27 (Saint Sava's feast Day), February 15 (Sretenje / Groundhog Day (Candlemas) / Serbian National Day), May 1-2 (Labour Day), May 9 (Victory Day), June 28 (Vidovdan / St Vitus Day) 

Serbia's official currency is the Serbian dinar (RSD). The Serbian dinar can be exchanged in most of the banks throughout the Europe. However, it is best to convert at the airport (even though the rate there tends to be a bit higher) or in the banks located in the towns or in the numerous and visibly marked authorized exchange offices (Menjacnica/?????????). The Euro is occasionally accepted, but prices are often overestimated when directly compared to the Dinar. Belgrade is typically on par with many European cities prices; however, outside the capital, prices of almost any item are lot lower than in the capital. Typically, 150dDinars for a coke in a Belgrade bar, and 220 dinars for 3 cokes in a bar outside the capital. In March 2011, the exchange rate stood at 73 Serbian Dinars for 1 US Dollar, and 103 Serbian Dinars for €1. 

Money changers may refuse worn-out or damaged foreign banknotes, especially US dollars, therefore it is recommended to bring notes only in good condition. Banks usually accept slightly damaged notes, sometimes with a commission. 

Slovakia, also known as the Slovak Republic, is a charming Central European country with a colorful history. Its northern countryside is marked by the prestigious Carpathian Mountains, which extend across much of the northern territory. Slovakia's northern border with Poland is accented by the imposing Tatra Mountains and serves as a favorite skiing destination. Nearby, the beloved Krivan Mountain watches over the panoramic valley. Slovakia is home to the beloved Danube River, famously immortalized by the composer Johann Strauss through his celebrated Danube Waltz. 

Bratislava, the capital city of Slovakia, is the country's largest city and serves as the cultural heart of the country. The city enjoys its many multi-cultural influences, and is brimming with many notable museums, art galleries, performance halls, and historic districts. In the Old Town district of Bratislava, the Slovak National Theatre hosts many popular operas, enchanting ballets, and dramatic productions. The Slovak National Museum, also in the Old Town, proudly exhibits its expansive numismatic and natural science collections. Bratislava possesses a unique shopping experience where you can find wood fired ceramics, hand carved woodcrafts, folk dolls in traditional clothing, traditional folk instruments like fujaras, and the famous corn husk dolls. 

Beyond the city you will find a plush landscape rich in history and undiscovered landmarks. Bojnice Castle, the national treasure of Slovakia, is renowned for its historical significance and has been used repeatedly for filming movies. A few miles outside of Bratislava, the ruins of the 9th century Devin Castle are not to be missed. The ancient medieval walls of Trnava served as the seat of the religious administration during 16th century. The city of Nitra, Slovakia's agricultural center, features the St. Emmeram Cathedral, the ruins of Hrad castle, and the ancient Drazovce church. Tour the 12th century Spis Castle, the largest medieval castle in the region. 






You can bike along Europe's longest cycling route, known as the Danube Cycle Trail. It extends from Passau, Germany, runs along the Danube River, through Bratislava and ends in Sturovo. Slovakia's many rivers and lakes such as Liptovska Mara, Zemplinska Sirava, and Sl'nava, provide abundant water sports including swimming, canoeing, rafting and fishing. For a spa treatment from Mother Nature, the Herl'any Geyser spews healing mineral water 100 feet up in the air every 33 hours. 

Getting around Slovakia is easy, as it has a well-developed transit system. You can hop on the Railways of the Slovak Republic and take an express train to any of the major cities and resort towns. Modern buses and trams run throughout all the major cities and offer an inexpensive way to see the sites. Taxis are cheap and readily available. Communication with the locals is not difficult as English and German are widely spoken.

Slovakia's climate is characterized by its dramatic geography. The mountains are perpetually cool and especially cold in the winter. The lowlands and valleys rarely reach beyond 70 degrees Fahrenheit, making it a perfect year round travel destination. From the majestic Carpathian Mountains, to the lush lowlands and historically vibrant cities, Slovakia is the highlight of any Central European excursion.

In 2011 the Republic of Slovenia will be celebrating 20 years since its declaration of national independence. Pride in the achievements of independent Slovenia will also be reflected during 2011 in the tourism sector: special events, adoption of new visions for development and, no less importantly, fun and socialising with friends of Slovenia from all over the world. And a very special part in these gatherings will be played by Slovenian expatriates and their descendants. The biggest such gathering in Slovenian territory is planned for early July.

The Slovenian Tourist board plans to make it easier for Slovenians, their descendants and friends to visit Slovenia, through numerous special offers and discounts. To ensure that Slovenians, their descendants and friends throughout the world know about these offers, details are posted on this website. The website, which posts special tourist deals and packages for expatriates, emigrants and their nearest and dearest, is also planned as a forum for impressions and memories of their original family homeland. The Slovenian Tourist Board has put together the special packages in cooperation with a range of tour operators, and will be continuously updating them.

The uniqueness of Spain lies in the separate kingdoms which made up the original Spanish nation. These regions remain diverse in their language, culture, cuisine and art. They include: Andalucía, Aragon, Asturias, Basque Country, the Balearic Islands, the Canary Islands, Cantabria, Castilla La Mancha, Castilla León, Catalonia, Extremadura, Galicia, La Rioja, Madrid, Murcia, Navarra and Valencia.Excellent and quiet beaches can be found near Malaga, Huelva and Almería in the south as well as near the coasts of La Manga, Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria and Euskadi. If you do enjoy extremely developed resort towns, there are plenty of crowded beaches on the Costa de la Luz and the Costa del Sol. Interesting is the harbour of Almerimar with cosy bars, just south of El Ejido (Almeria). Spain is more than bullfights, flamenco dancers and crowded beaches. It's a spectacular and diverse country, the north resembling the rolling, green hills of Ireland and the south giving you a taste of Moroccan landscapes and architecture. Its tremendous history is reflected in its prehistoric cave paintings, Moorish palaces, crumbling castles, Roman ruins, Gothic and Renaissance cathedrals as well as some very distinctive modern architecture. Very unique architecture can be found in Córdoba, Salamanca, Granada, Toledo, Madrid... The visionary architecture of Antoni Gaudí and the Picasso museum are in Barcelona while Madrid is home to Spain’s top three art museums. There is some incredible, unique accommodation in these cities that is really worth taking a look at. You will no longer simply be visiting the architectural gems, but staying inside them! With hundreds of Barcelona apartments located throughout the city, it really is the best way to experience this enchanting location.
Costa Blanca Holidays

Sweden is a land of incredible cultural contrast. While urban Sweden is stylish, modern and sophisticated, the countryside offers many simpler pleasures for those in search of tranquillity.

Sweden's scenery generally has a gentler charm than that of neighbouring Norway's rugged coastline and mountains. Much of Sweden is forested, and there are thousands of lakes, notably large stretches of water between Gothenburg and the capital, Stockholm.

The lakeside resort of Östersund, in the centre of Sweden, is popular with Scandinavians, but most visitors opt first for the cities and the Baltic islands: the largest island, Gotland, with its array of ruined medieval churches, is a particular highlight. Another major attraction is the so-called 'Kingdom of Crystal', a forested area between Malmö and Stockholm boasting many fine glassworks.

The land and its people have an air of reserved calm, and while perhaps best known for its automotive and musical exports - Volvo and Abba are household names - a strong historical undertone bubbles close beneath the surface. Nowhere is this more apparent than in Stockholm, where dozens of museums, and attractive medieval and baroque edifices housing boutiques and cafés overlook the attractive harbour.

Switzerland [1] (German: Schweiz, French: Suisse, Italian: Svizzera, Romansch: Svizra) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It has borders with France to the west, Italy to the south, Austria and Liechtenstein to the east and Germany to the north. 
The climate is temperate, but varies with altitude. Switzerland has cold, cloudy, rainy/snowy winters and cool to warm, cloudy, humid summers with occasional showers. 
Switzerland is known for its mountains (Alps in south, Jura in northwest) but it also has a central plateau of rolling hills, plains, and large lakes. The highest point is Dufourspitze at 4,634 m while Lake Maggiore is only 195 m above sea level. 
Switzerland's independence and neutrality have long been honored by the major European powers and Switzerland was not involved in either of the two World Wars. The political and economic integration of Europe over the past half century, as well as Switzerland's role in many UN and international organizations has strengthened Switzerland's ties with its neighbors. However, the country did not officially become a UN member until 2002. Switzerland remains active in many UN and international organizations, but retains a strong commitment to neutrality. 
Switzerland showcases three of Europe's most distinct cultures. To the northeast is the beer-drinking, sausage-eating German-speaking Switzerland; to the south-west the wine drinking and shopping spills effortlessly into France; in the south-east the sun warms cappuccino-sippers loitering in Italian-style plazas; and in the center: classic Swiss flugelhorns and mountain landscapes. Binding it all together is a distinct Swiss mentality. 
Switzerland can be a glorious whirlwind trip whether you've packed your hiking boots, snowboard, or just a good book and a pair of sunglasses. 
Switzerland is a peaceful, prosperous, and stable modern market economy with low unemployment, a highly skilled labor force, and a per capita GDP larger than that of the big Western European economies. The Swiss in recent years have brought their economic practices largely into conformity with the EU's to enhance their international competitiveness. Switzerland remains a safe haven for investors, because it has maintained a degree of bank secrecy and has kept up the franc's long-term external value. Reflecting the anemic economic conditions of Europe, GDP growth dropped in 2001 to about 0.8%, to 0.2% in 2002, and to -0.3% in 2003, with a small rise to 1.8% in 2004-05. Even so, unemployment has remained at less than half the EU average

Ukraine is the hidden jewel of Europe; as the second-largest country of the European Continent; Ukraine offers visitors a wide variety of amazing places of interest, ancient history, beautiful landscapes, varied climates, tasty traditional food, and many other enjoyable attractions.
Ukraine lies at the northwest end of the Black Sea and borders with seven countries (Russia to the east, Belarus to the north, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania and Moldova to the south west and south).
Historically, most of the country was part of the Russian Empire since the 1650s until the World War II when was occupied by the Soviet Union until its break-up in 1991 when Ukraine finally regained its independence.     


The spectacular nature of Ukraine is still untouched by the modern world. The Carpathian Mountains, the Crimean Peninsula, the Dnepr River, the Black Sea, and the Sea of Azov help to create the unique landscape of the country. The climate in Ukraine is quite pleasant; it is relatively temperate continental (quite cold in the winter and warm in the summer) excepting Crimea where it is Mediterranean-like.

Ukraine is a country with strong historical and religious traditions it is reflected in its impressive architecture that boasts imposing Orthodox and Catholic Cathedrals, unique Jewish sites, and ancient monasteries and fortresses, besides its unique music, and exceptional artwork. Ukraine is an important cultural centre with its exceptional artwork; and ballet and opera theatres renowned throughout the world. Ukraine is also the birthplace of the distinguished writer Nikolai Gogol.
The capital city of Ukraine is Kyiv; referred also as Kiev; this beautiful city is the origin of the Kievan Rus' and the birthplace of the Russian Empire. Kyiv is also enriched with two world-renowned landmarks: the St. Sophia Cathedral and the Kyiv Pechersk Lavra (or Cave Monastery).
The city of Lviv (or Lvov) is one of the Europe's oldest cities; their charming Old Town is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. The beach resort city of Odesa (or Odessa), known as the 'Pearl of the Black Sea', is famous for the Potemkin Stairs, the Odesa catacombs, and the Odesa Opera and Ballet Theatre.

Yalta is since the Russian Empire times a popular summer destination because of its many beaches and resorts; the city houses extraordinary buildings like the Voronstov Palace and Livadia Palace which was the site of the Yalta conference; near Yalta is situated the Nikitsky Botanical Garden, one of the oldest botanical gardens in the world.
Other attractive Ukrainian cities are Kharkiv (or Kharkov), Donetsk, Dnipropetrovsk (or Dnepropetrovsk), Luhansk (or Lugansk), Sevastopol, Uzhhorod, among many others.
A couple of important tips, Ukrainian is the official language though Russian is widely spoken especially in Crimea and Ukraine is sometimes referred as “The Ukraine”, an incorrect expression, since its independence the country must called simply “Ukraine.”
But, besides the immense range of tourist attractions of Ukraine, the greatest attraction ofUkraine is its people who are friendly, hospitable, and kind-hearted. Ukraine is just waiting to be discovered.

England shows many different faces: pulsing city life and lonely landscapes, old-fashioned customs and avant-garde culture, lovely beaches and rough mountains. For cultural sightseeing as for nightlife, London is ceaselessly thriving, and inevitably, it is the one place that features on everyone's itinerary. London’s West End offers a fantastic theatre experience with many popular classic theatre productions and also new emerging shows.
It is not only Europe's biggest city (with a population of over seven million} and capital of the United Kingdom, but also the place where the country's news, politics and money are made. Within the southeast of England, along the coastline, Canterbury, the bishopric seat of Thomas Becket, offers contrasting diversions. This is the richest part of the country due to its agricultural wealth and proximity to the capital. The southwest of England with the rugged moorlands of Devon and the rocky coastline of Cornwall is another spot worth discovering. Salisbury, where they say the West Country starts, is dominated by the elegant spire of its cathedral.     
In Neolithic times, a rich and powerful culture evolved here, as shown by monuments such as Stonehenge and Avebury. The main urban attraction of western England is Bristol, but Bath and Exeter are also worth a visit. In the centre of the country, the chief attractions are the old university cities of Oxford and Cambridge, and the town of Shakespeare, Stratford upon Avon, though the often bypassed city of Norwich, over in the picturesque flatlands of East Anglia, can be equally rewarding. In the north of England, the industrial cities of Liverpool, Newcastle and Manchester are gritty and lively places, and York and Durham have splendid historical treasures, but the landscape again is the real magnet, especially the uplands of the Lake District and the dales of Yorkshire.

Cardiff is the largest city in Wales and became the capital city of Wales in 1955. It is a stylish town which has gained in confidence since the recent establishment of the Welsh Assembly (devolved power for Wales) in the regenerated Cardiff Bay. It also has the best shopping in Wales: pedestrianised Queen Street is the centre, but the Victorian arcades which branch off St. Mary Street are more fascinating. The new St. David's Centre has just opened with its huge central gallery, and its incredible John Lewis store is probably the best department store you will find outside London.
The National Museum and Gallery is a bit of a jewel. A vast collection in a beautiful building, it effectively manages to combine exhibits of both art and science. The "Evolution of Wales" gallery is permanently on display and charts Wales over 4,600 million years using robotics and audio-visual effects (too many rocks, but good dinosaurs). Free admission.
The city skyline is dominated by the Millennium Stadium. One of the best sports stadiums in Britain was built for the 1999 Rugby World Cup. It has a retractable roof which proves handy for keeping the merciless Welsh sun off the athletes and spectators. It is possible to take a stadium tour. If you don't want to leave your computer, try the 360° virtual tour.
Cardiff Castle
Cardiff Castle stands impressively in the heart of the city. The flamboyant design is actually a relatively modern creation (1867 - 1875). The Marquess of Bute, phenomenally wealthy from the coal fortunes of the Industrial Revolution, funded the reconstruction of the castle by the architect William Burges.
From the exterior, the extravagant design is clearly displayed in the 150ft high Clock Tower (shown left). The interior rooms are sumptuous if rather gaudy, reflecting the confidence and glory of the Victorian era.
It should be noted, though, that not all of Cardiff Castle is modern fakery: in the centre of the grounds stands the Norman keep dating to the 12th century.
And two miles south of the city centre ...
The redevelopment of Cardiff Bay has continued with the recent opening of the Wales Millennium Centre for the arts. This spectacular building stages musicals, opera, ballet, and dance. And the graceful Welsh Assembly building has recently opened. But best of all, the area features heavily in the new BBC Wales production of Dr. Who! When you're in Cardiff Bay, you might try taking a ride on the Waterbus, or go white water rafting along the 800-foot aqua race track at the International White Water Centre.
There are a lot of excellent restaurants in the area centred around Mermaid Quay, including the Pearl of the Orient and the spectacular Bosphoros Turkish Restaurant. I can also recommend Harry Ramsden's fish and chip shop. A luxurious setting, waiter service, and blinking good fish and chips.
I had great fun in Techniquest, a wonderland of scientific exploration for adults (well, it would be if all the children didn't get in the way). 160 interactive exhibits gives you the chance to learn about a range of scientific principles (or just muck around with water and a hammer).
And just outside Cardiff ...
Castell Coch
Castell Coch (the "Red Castle") is a romantic fantasy - a piece of Bavaria imported into the Cardiff valley. It clings dramatically to a hillside overlooking the Taff river. It is especially dramatic at night as you drive past Cardiff on the M4 and you see it illuminated above you.
Your delight on initially encountering this castle is tempered by the fact that it is little more than one hundred years old - it's another Victorian construction created by our friend the Marquess of Bute.
If you fancy a break from all this fake stuff, try Caerphilly Castle. This vast, 30-acre fortress is only equalled in size by Windsor Castle.
Also just outside Cardiff you can find the Museum of Welsh Life at St. Fagans. This open-air museum traces Wales's journey from rural tradition to industrial powerhouse, from the recreated Celtic village to the 21st century Home for the Future. Over 40 buildings have been transported to the museum, stone-by-stone, from all over Wales. Free admission.

Aalborg (or Ålborg) is a Danish industrial and university city in North Jutland. The city of Aalborg has a population of 103,545 [2] (124,921 including Nørresundby) making it the fourth largest city in Denmark in terms of population. The municipality of Aalborg has a population of 199,188 (2011)[3] making it the third most populous municipality in the country after Copenhagen and Århus.[4] The earliest settlements date back to around AD 700. Its location by the Limfjord made it an important harbour during the Middle Ages, and an industrial centre later. Today, the city is in transition from a working-class industrial city to a knowledge-based one.

Aarhus or Århus  is the second-largest city in Denmark. The principal port of Denmark, Aarhus is on the east side of the peninsula of Jutland in the geographical center of Denmark. Aarhus is the seat of the council of Aarhus municipality with 311,235 inhabitants and 249,709 (1 January 2011) in the inner urban area. According to Aarhus municipality, the "Greater Aarhus" area has a population of about 1.2 million people.[4][5][6] The city claims the unofficial title "Capital of Jutland".
Aarhus is the main and biggest city in the East Jutland metropolitan area (Danish: Byregion Østjylland), which is a co-operation in the eastern Jutland with 17 municipalities. With more than 1.2 million people living in the area it represents approximately 23% of the population of Denmark and is the second largest coherent urban area after the Copenhagen metropolitan area.[8]
Aarhus Cathedral; rebuilt to its current size in 1500, with the longest nave in DenmarkThe city was mentioned for the first time by Adam of Bremen who stated that "Reginbrand, bishop of the church of Aarhus (Harusa)" participated in a church meeting in the city of Ingelheim in Germany.[9]
During the Middle Ages the city was called Arus, and in Icelandic chronicles, it was known as Áróss. It is a compound of the two words ar, genitive of a ("river", Modern Danish å) and oss ("mouth", Modern Danish munding; in Modern Icelandic this word is still used for "river delta").[citation needed] The name originates from the city's location around the mouth of the stream Aarhus Å (English: Aarhus River, Å being the Danish word for a small river.
Through regular sound development, Medieval Danish Arus became Aars or Oes, a form which persisted in the dialects of the surrounding parishes until the 20th century. In 1406, Aarhus became prevalent in the written sources, and gradually became the norm in the 17th century. Aarhus is probably a remodelling after the numerous Low German place names in -husen, possibly as a result of the influence of German merchants.

Spiritual Amorgos. The clank of crockery carries through Katapola Bay a local and stray cats awake. Fisherman dock and deliver their catch before the first ferry, carrying the culture-hungry, arrives. Unassuming, yet coyly handsome,Amorgos is the traditional Greek Island, embracing history, culture and arresting architecture. This is stone wall country. Climbing above the bay up to Moundoulia Hill, you can relive the past by wandering around the bastions of ancient excavated settlement of Minoa. Its 4th – century BC gymnasium is clearly recognizable, and by the Hellenistic temple stand the remains of a solitary statue. The only other life you are likely to encounter on you slate and limestone rocky rambles is a donkey goat or a handful of cows. It’s easy to dip into sleepy afternoon at Chora, the island‘s capital. Uniquely for Greek island –capitals it is hidden inland at the dizzying height of 444 meter above sea level, erected there to deter pirates. Crowning the town’s [panoramic peak, and spied upon by ancient windmills, is the 13th – century Venetian Castle of Jeremiah Ghisi,seen as the island’sprotector.It’s Meltemi-buffeted rampant behold magnificent views over the entire village and the east-to-west coasts. Similar in many ways to Mykonos’ town,Vhora is a graceful mélange of whitewashed sugar-cubed houses, but is far from the bustle of its snazzy designer neighbor.Simplicty and serenity emanates from Amorgos 121 square kilometers, home for population of just 1,850.After sunrise, walking inland along mule trails has you steeped in peace. Amid the pungent mild herbs and rare orchids, century-old farming equipment lays powerless in the baking sun. Picnicking on a lunch of fresh bread, feta, olives and tomatoes might be about the most energetic you’ll get on Amorgos. That is unless you have heard about its vertiginously-mounted architectural phenomenon. Carved into the mountain, most literally, and only visible from the sea, the 10th-century Byzantine Monastery of Panagia Hozoviotissa is one of the Greek Islands’ most spiritual historic monuments. Stitched like 3 D embroidery onto the vertical eastern cliff-face of the Profitis Llias Mountain, it hangs suspended at almost 300 meters above sea level, with precarious balconies sponging up the island’s east coast vistas. Standing here in complete tranquility, time freezes around you. Entering the dungeon-like stairway, ducking as you climb you encounter miniature rooms that seem fir only for dolls; houses. The few monks that remain here take care of the priceless Byzantine icons and handwritten manuscripts – the island’s treasures. And they are hospitable people, greeting you with a loukoumi, a local sweet similar to Turkish delight. Also offered is a fiery shot of pismani raki, locally known as rakomelo, a grape-based liquor made with local Amorgian honey, herbs and spieces.Its welcomely chased down by a glass of water. If you are energetic enough to climb up to the monastery at sunrise, look out over the sparkling sea of crushed sapphires, and it’ll quickly become clear why the French Film maker Luc Besson, chose these waters as the location for his cult movie.

Visit the rich and famous at Madame Tussauds, discover the secrets of diamond cutting at Coster and Gassan Diamonds, learn more about Heineken beer at the Heineken Experience, cycle along the canals like the Dutch do. You’d better book an extra day in Amsterdam if you want to see all its attractions.

This city has a population of over 146 000 people, it is considered to be the hottest city in France and has over 2000 years of history and culture. Textiles are very popular here too. Here you will find all the necessary information on what the attractions, best time of the year and places to stay are, plus much, much more. Nimes is situated close to the French Mediterranean, and this gives it its phenomenal and attractive weather. You can get either a taxi or a private transfer from the airport to your hotel, positive things to factor in about scheduling a transfer service is that you can do it ahead of time, which means that there will be one less thing to worry about, also that you will know everyone is driving to the hotel together. Eating in Nimes can be a very interesting experience; France is very popular for its culinary qualities and Nimes is famous for its particular food combinations.The city of Cannes is situated in the southern part of France, in the Riviera region and has a population of approximately 70.000 inhabitants. Cannes is very famous around the world for its Film Festival and also for its Cannes Lions Festival. This a luxurious city and has tourism as its principal resource. It is 905 km away from Paris, 164 km from Marseille and 26 km away from Nice. The coast is much visited. The Boulevard de la Croisette is one of the most important attractions for tourists who love the beach, sun and sand. La Croisette is a 12 km waterfront avenue bordered with palm trees, with many elegant hotels, cafés, shops and restaurants around. Visiting the Musée de la Castre is also a good option for seeing impressive works of art, paintings, sculptures and decorative art. And if you want to relax visit the Îles de Lérins (Lérins Islands) with nice views and beautiful beaches. If you just take a walk in the streets of Cannes you will discover a very friendly atmosphere. The main streets are d’Antibes and Meynardier. You will have a good time at the boutiques. Its restaurants are very good, although the prices are sometimes expensive. Depending on whether the restaurant is located on the waterfront or not, the price will be a bit more expensive.

Athens comes of the name from the goddess Athena, the goddess of wisdom and knowledge. The town is the emblem of freedom, art, and democracy in the conscience of the civilized world. The main landmark of Athens is the acropolis which manages the town and on which situate the relics of the Parthenon, the propylaea, and the Erechtheum. Occupying the southern part of Athens, the Acropolis is ringed by the other chief landmarks of the ancient town the Pnyx, where the citizens' assemblies were held; the Areopagus; the Theseum of Hephaesteum, a well-preserved Doric temple of the 5th cent. B.C.; the old Agora and the Roman forum; the temple of Zeus or Olympieum; the theatre of Dionysius (the oldest in Greece); and the Odeum of Herodes Atticus. Athens exhibits a mystifying mix of architectural styles from across the centuries and under many influences, making it a fascinating place to visit. A European Union-sponsored program aims to help in Discovering Contemporary Architecture in Athens by means of multimedia presentation and guided walks. Athens the capital of Greece extends across the middle valley of Attica, often mentioned to as the Attica Basin, which is bound by Mount Aegaleo in the west, Mount Parnitha in the north, Mount Penteli in the northeast, Mount Hymettus in the east, and the Saronic Gulf in the southwest. Athens is the emblem of freedom, art, and democracy in the conscience of the civilized world. Its name was taken from the goddess Athena, the goddess of wisdom and knowledge.

With a population of 15,000, Bad Gastein is a sizable resort town that has a long history dating back beyond the arrival of snow sports in the area. Originally a spa resort, the records of the healing powers of its 17 natural springs date back at least to the 13th century, and the resort remains a major year-round spa and wellness destination to this day. There is water everywhere, in many indoor spas and out in streams, rivers and a spectacular local waterfall.

Thanks to this status, the resort’s infrastructure and the range of shopping, restaurants and other activities available are far better than for many seasonal ski resorts. It also makes Bad Gastein a good choice for those with non-skiers in their party.

Although not originally built for skiing, Bad Gastein has become one of Austria’s leading ski resorts and has been since the earliest days of winter sports. Austria’s first cable car for skiers opened here 60 years ago and the ski slopes have extended to join neighbouring resorts in the Gastein Valley with a world class network of 250km (170 miles) of piste.

Well known as a cultural centre, Barcelona boasts splendid architecture, monuments, historical sites, natural resources, beaches and much more. It is a very modern, multicultural, cosmopolitan city. Almost 4.5 million people live in the Barcelona metropolitan area. The city enjoys a prime location, bathed by the sea and has excellent transport links with the rest of Europe. Some people say that Barcelona is Spain's most European city because it is always open to new ideas and trends. You can note this in its people, the Catalans. The Catalan capital's is a modern, cosmopolitan city, but has inherited many centuries of history. There are monuments of Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance periods or still before, but most characteristic is what has been built during the last 100 years. Though the 1992 Olympics focused the world’s attention on the city, Antoni Gaudi’s wonderfully weird architecture demonstrates how long Barcelona has been at the vanguard of all that is new and different.Barcelona, a 2,000-year-old master of the art of perpetual novelty, has catapulted to the rank of Spain's most-visited city. In fact, in 2003 nearly four million visitors came to the city, many on charter flights from Northern Europe. Autumn is the perfect time to visit Barcelona with less heat, fewer tourists and the city’s biggest street party, Festes de la Mercè, on September 24. The city continues to evolve as a centre of design, as a gastronomic powerhouse, as an educational and business centre and potentially the coolest city in the world. And one the world never tires of visiting.Although Barcelona is a large city, it is easy to get around on public transport and on foot. You can reach any point in the city by metro, bus and taxi. Also, Barcelona attracts tourists from all over the world. The explosion of low-cost, Internet airlines, plus the good value at hotels and restaurants compared to other European cities, has made Barcelona the European weekender capital.The area around the Catalunya Place, including the city's historical center includes the Passeig de Gracia, the Rambla de Catalunya and the upper half of the Diagonal avenue is the main commercial area of the city. "La Rambla", a pedestrian street, is the best place to watch people go by, to stroll or simply relax. Also, here you can find dozens of outdoor cafes. Nearby is 'Plaça Real', with plenty of bars and restaurants, and 'Palau Guell', built by Antoni Gaudí in his undulating art-nouveau style.Well known as a cultural centre, Barcelona boasts splendid architecture, monuments, historical sites, natural resources, beaches and much more. It is a very modern, multicultural, cosmopolitan city. Almost 4.5 million people live in the Barcelona metropolitan area. The city enjoys a prime location, bathed by the sea and has excellent transport links with the rest of Europe. Some people say that Barcelona is Spain's most European city because it is always open to new ideas and trends. You can note this in its people, the Catalans. The Balearic Islands lie to the east, the Costa Brava to the north, the monastery at Montserrat to the west, and to the south, the Roman city of Tarragona, and the playground resort of Sitges. Barcelona's inhabitants are open and welcoming. The people of Barcelona speak Catalan, their own language, and Spanish. Many of them also understand a little English and French.Barcelona, a 2,000-year-old master of the art of perpetual novelty, has catapulted to the rank of Spain's most-visited city. In fact, in 2003 nearly four million visitors came to the city, many on charter flights from Northern Europe. Autumn is the perfect time to visit Barcelona with less heat, fewer tourists and the city’s biggest street party, Festes de la Mercè, on September 24. The city continues to evolve as a centre of design, as a gastronomic powerhouse, as an educational and business centre and potentially the coolest city in the world. And one the world never tires of visiting.

Basel is a city in Switzerland.

One of Switzerland's underrated tourist destinations, Basel has a beautiful medieval old town center, a Carnival that ranks with those of Venice and Rio de Janeiro, and several world class art museums built by architects like Renzo Piano, Mario Botta and Herzog & De Meuron. Basel is also rich in architecture old and new, with a Romanesque Münster (cathedral), a Renaissance Rathaus (town hall), and various examples of high quality contemporary architecture, including more buildings by Herzog & De Meuron, Richard Meier, Diener & Diener, and various others.

Located in the Dreiländerecke (three countries' corner), Basel is a gateway to the Swiss Jura mountains and nearby cities of Zürich and Lucerne, as well as the neighboring French region of Alsace and the German Black Forest. There are a number of things to see and do if you have a few days to spend.

It was one of the eight host cities in the 2008 European Football Championships.

Dreiländereck, borders of Switzerland, Germany, and France meeting at the Rhine harbour of Basel The town of Basel lies in the north-western corner of Switzerland. The town shares borders with France and Germany and is the heart of this tri-national region - the Dreiländereck (three countries' corner). Besides its own attractions it can serve as a good entry point to the Alsace, Black Forest regions or the canton of Basel-Land.

A Basilisk, the mythical dragon holding the coat of arms and protecting the city The Rhine curves through the city and divides the town into two parts. Situated on the south and west bank is Grossbasel (Great Basel) with the medieval old town at its center. Kleinbasel (Little Basel), featuring much of the night-life, is on the north bank.
Visiting Basel can be a holiday for your vocal cords if you plan to absorb the beautiful art in silence exhibited in the many first-rate museums. Once a year it also hosts Art | Basel (see Do) which is the world's premier fair for modern classics and contemporary art.

Basel has one of the most amazing carnivals you're likely to see, called Fasnacht. If you're there during the "three loveliest days" of the year, prepare to be amazed, and don't expect to be able to sleep. (See Do, Festivals).

Basel is a cosmopolitan city because of its university and industry and its proximity to the borders of France and Germany. The official language of the city is German, but the majority of the population speaks Baseldytsch, an Alemannic dialect, as their mother tongue. German is taught in schools and fluently spoken by virtually everyone, so if you speak German and they notice that you are a foreigner, they will most likely answer you in German. Also widely spoken are English and French, both of which many people are able to communicate in comfortably enough to deal with everyday interactions and will gladly work to understand you. Borrowed French words are fairly common in everyday conversation; for example, Baslers often bid each other farewell with the French "adieu". Basically, the average Basler understands and speaks fluent Baseldytsch, German, English, and often French.

Bath
The Romans established the City of Bath in AD 43 and this city, awash with architecture, history and culture has made Bath travel a priority when visiting England. Many of this city's great buildings date back from its renaissance in the 18th century when it again became a fashionable spa town and played host to royalty and the cream of aristocracy, who travelled to Bath to 'take the waters'.
Today Bath travel attractions include a walk around the old Roman Baths, to enjoy the splendour of Bath Abbey or simply take in the breathtaking Georgian architecture of this beautiful city.  For an authentic feel of life gone by, period decorations and furniture have been reinstated in No1 Royal Crescent, so that the house appears as it might have been as a fine 18th-century townhouse.
Though most travel to Bath for its architecture as its seen as something of a period piece, it is also a very
modern city; its restaurants and pavement cafés packed full of local businessmen and artisans making it a
destination not to be missed.
The International Music Festival marks the beginning of summer and adds to Bath's lively, festive atmosphere and its Theatre Royal is one of the country's leading provincial theatres, attracting big names and pre-West End runs.
Anytime is a good time to visit Bath. Summer July-September is the busiest and prices can be higher. The best time to travel to Bath is late spring May and June with English gardens in full bloom.  Winter is probably the least busy.

Belgrade — meaning 'White City' — is the capital of the Republic of Serbia. Various styles of architecture dominate the city, while its recent resurgence as the leading hub in south-eastern Europe make it a must see destination.

Belgrade's districts and neighbourhoods
The St Sava Church, the biggest Eastern Orthodox Church in the world (a must-see for all visitors)
Knez Mihajlova, one of the most popular pedestrian-only streets in BelgradeBelgrade is the capital of the Republic of Serbia and is, as such, the country's largest city with a population of about 1.7 million people [2]. It lies on the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers. The city has a long history, dating back to the 4th century BC, when the area was settled by Celtic tribes. Later on, it became the Roman city of Singidunum, and relics of that era can still be seen in the city, particularly at Kalemegdan Fortress. In 7th it was invaded by the Bulgarian empire and it remain Bulgarian until the ottoman invasion. In 1800, when Serbia got its independence, Belgrade became the capital of the new country.

After the First World War, Belgrade became the seat of Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (in 1928, the country changed name to Kingdom of Yugoslavia) until its collapse, and it saw violence again in 1999 with NATO's bombing campaign. This often violent history and outside influence has colored much of Belgrade's evolution, which is evident in its culture and architecture. Often caught between the hammer and anvil of clashing empires, the city has taken on a unique character, reminiscent of both Austrian and Turkish influences, with a unique set of Communist elements thrown in as Yugoslavia was expelled from the Eastern Bloc in 1948. Yet, the city has its own spirit, and in it can be found some not only unique features, but also a healthy joie de vivre in its café culture, nightlife and often Mediterranean flavor in its view of life.

Whilst there isn't much by way of ethnic or cultural diversity in Belgrade, in terms of different migrant populations – compared to other European cities – there are minority communities (largely Roma and Chinese), as well as people from other former Yugoslav republics, such as Bosnia, Croatia and Macedonia. There is also a small expat community. Cultural events from round the world, however, are starting to be increasingly common, particularly in the spring and summer months, thanks in no small part to both local arts and culture organizations, as well as foreign embassies/cultural centers. These attract a good deal of local attention, and will help in raising the city's profile as a cultural hotspot.

Belgrade is an energetic city re-discovering its tourism potential. One great new magazine, White City is a must read for anyone who plans on visiting. They call themselves an urban magazine but it's a great lifestyle magazine written in English for both locals and foreigners. It's available at any place that sells magazines in Belgrade.

Bergen is the second largest city in Norway with a population of 262,900 as of September 12, 2011. Bergen is the administrative centre of Hordaland county. Greater Bergen or Bergen Metropolitan Area as defined by Statistics Norway, has a population of 387,000 as of September 12, 2011.
Bergen is located in the county of Hordaland on the south-western coast of Norway. It is an important cultural hub in its region, recognized as the unofficial capital of Western Norway and sometimes also referred to as the Atlantic coast capital of Norway. The city was one of nine European cities honoured with the title of European Capital of Culture in the Millennium year.

Berne (German: Bern), the capital of Switzerland, is a small to medium sized city with a population of about 130,000 in the city proper and roughly 350,000 in the agglomeration area. It sits on a peninsula formed by the meandering turns of the river Aare. The remarkable design coherence of the Berne's old town has earned it a place on the UNESCO World Heritage List. It features 4 miles of arcaded walkways along streets decked out with fountains and clock-towers. Bern was one of the eight host cities in the 2008 European Football Championships.

Berne was founded in 1191 by Duke Berthold V von Zähringen and was part of the Holy Roman Empire. It was made a free imperial city by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II in 1218 after Berthold died without an heir.

In 1353 Berne joined the Swiss confederation. After several successful conquers, Berne became the largest independent city state north of the alps. It was occupied by French troops in 1798 during the French Revolutionary Wars, and was stripped of a large part of its territory. The city became the Swiss capital in 1848.


The main language spoken in Berne is Bernese-German, a Swiss dialect of the Alemannic language, although most people also speak German. Alemannic is mostly a spoken language, but also used in text messages etc. In official publications and announcements, German is used.

English seems to be supplanting French as the favorite second language of the Bernese, even though the canton of Berne is a bilingual German and French speaking canton. However, many people you encounter as a tourist will be able to speak both so it's certainly worth a try.

You'll be raising your glass many times in Bordeaux, which is renowned for its wines, considered amongst the best in the world. As the capital of the department Gironde in the region Aquitaine, it has one million inhabitants in its metropolitan area at a 2008 estimate. After years of neglect, the former wet docks are the country's new hot spot, with a number of cafés, gardens, and museums springing up all the time. A lively university community of over 60,000, (Bordeaux Campus is the largest in France) establishes that Bordeaux is about more than just wine.


Bordeaux is considered a very tolerant and relaxed place - no one will bother you about your political beliefs, religion, or sexual orientation. The cultural, artistic, and music scenes are very vibrant. The city was ruled by the English for a long time, which is why Bordeaux seems to have an "English flair".

Bordeaux is often referred to as "Little Paris" and the rivalry between the "Bordelais" (people from Bordeaux) and "Parisiens" is a hot subject, so you may experience some heated arguments on the subject during your stay.


Bordeaux is a flat city, built on the banks of the Garonne River. It is also the largest French city by area and geographically one of the largest in Europe. The Garonne merges a dozen kilometers below the city with another river, the Dordogne River to form the Gironde Estuary, which is biggest estuary in France.

The city center is located west and south of the Garonne. To the east are a few hills - the only ones in the vicinity. These hills mark the beginning of an industrial zone and suburbs. Because it is a flat city, bicycles make excellent modes of transport, especially as the city has more than 580 km of cycle tracks. Bordeaux is among the most economically dynamic cities in France.

Due to the weakness of the subsoil, there are no skyscrapers in Bordeaux, which explains its sprawl. The center of the town has retained its traditional stone mansions and smart terraces, hence the reason behind the city being called "Little Paris".

Modern buildings can be found to the west (administrative center) and south (university) of the city.

Bratislava or Pozsony in Hungarian and Pressburg in German, [1] is the capital and largest city in Slovakia. It has a population of almost 450,000 and is the administrative, cultural and economic center of the country. Before 1919, it was known as Prešporok in Slovak.

The same square during the New Year's Eve celebration in 2006
Bratislava has a very pleasant medieval inner city with narrow, winding streets, a hill-top castle next to the river Danube, and many historic churches and buildings to visit. The old town is centered on two squares, Hlavne namestie (main square) and Hviezdoslavovo namestie (Hviezdoslav square, named after a famous Slovak poet). Of a rather different architectural character are some of the communist-era buildings found in the modern parts of the city; a prime example is Petrzalka housing estate, the biggest Communist-era concrete block housing complex in Central Europe, which stretches on endlessly just across the river. Move further east and there are plenty of rural places to explore. Farms, vineyards, agricultural land, and tiny villages are situated less than 50 kilometers to the north and east of Bratislava.

Today, Bratislava and its surroundings form the second-most prosperous region in Central and Eastern Europe, with a per capita GDP of around 129.3% of the EU-25 average (after Prague).

After the fall of the Great Moravian Empire, Slovakia became part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10th century until the end of the First World War when the Treaty of Trianon created Czechoslovakia, a country which Slovaks are widely proud of - for example, some Czechoslovakian representatives, such as Alexander Dubcek and Gustáv Husák, were ethnically Slovak.

Between 1939 and 1944, Slovakia was a German-controlled state. Then, it was conquered by the Soviets to recreate a new Czechoslovakia, but one that would be pro-Soviet and Communist this time.

This lasted until the fall of Communist rule in Czechoslovakia, during the Velvet Revolution of 1989. In 1993, peaceful differences between Czechs and Slovaks when rebuilding their nation after the fall of Communism led to the dissolution of Czechoslovakia into two separate and independent nations: the Czech Republic, and of course Slovakia (Slovak Republic). To this day, Slovaks and Czechs have generally friendly relations, and the two nations cooperate together frequently on international issues.

Bratislava was the capital (1536 - 1784), the coronation city (1563 - 1830) and the seat of the diet (1536 - 1848) of the Kingdom of Hungary for many years. Since 1960, it has been the capital of the federal state of Slovakia within Czechoslovakia and, since 1993, it has been the capital of independent Slovakia.

Although today, Bratislava's population are mostly Slovaks, from the 13th to the early 19th century, the majority ethnic group in the city were the Germans, who remained the largest ethnic group until the First World War (in 1910, 42% were German, 41% Hungarian and 15% Slovak out of a total population of 78,000). Hungarians formed another important group in the city in the 19th century, but after the First World War, many Germans and Hungarians left for Austria and Hungary respectively, and the remaining Germans were expelled at the end of World War II.

Brighton is one of the most famous seaside resorts in the United kingdom, located in the south coast in the county of East Sussex nearly of the capital city London. Brighton and its close neighbor Hove form the city of Brighton and Hove since 2000.
Brighton emerged as an ancient settlement called Brighthelmston during the 18th century and was a popular destination for day-trippers after the arrival of the railway in. During the period of Prince George IV when Brighton reached its apogee, the prince decided move to Brighton and to establish its home in 1873, his house was the Royal Pavilion, with its Indian domes and minarets and its Chinese style interior.
A major tourist attraction in Brighton is the pebble beach, which has bars, restaurants and night clubs. With noticeably rock but they are not uncomfortable on bare feet like other beaches. Also Brighton's is known as nude area, because hedonism is biggest in the summer months. Londoners like Brighton because is an escape from the crowds and Gap-Minding of the tubes, to a cute, pedestrian friendly beach town. The pier is a cool diversion providing all the joys of a typical carnival trap.

Apart from being the centre of European politics, Brussels has a fascinating and old history that dates back to the 11th century when it began as a small dukedom the size of the current downtown area. In 1830 Belgium became independent and Brussels became the capital of Belgium under a new king and parliament. Find out more about the interesting facts of Belgium through a mixture of facts, history, cultural traditions and political infrastructure.
Belgium became an independent state in 1830 after protests against the policies of King William of the Netherlands. Since then, Belgium has created its own Constitution and proclaimed its own sovereign – King Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was the first king of the Kingdom of Belgium.
An interesting fact is that Belgium is separated into 3 regions mainly due to differences in language – French and Dutch speakers. The regions are Flanders in the north (Dutch), Wallonia in the south (French) and Brussels in the centre (Bilingual). There is a small area called Ardennes that also speaks German but it is not an official region.
Conventional name: Kingdom of Belgium
Local name: Belgique (French) / Belgie (Dutch)
Capital city: Brussels
Population: 10.5 million (UN, 2008)
Area: 30,528 sq km (11,787 sq miles)
Location: Western Europe, bordered between the Netherlands, Germany, France and the North Sea
Time zone: GMT +1 (daylight savings time from end of March until end of October)
Official languages: French, Dutch (dialect called Flemish) and German
International dial code: +32
Internet domain: .be
Monetary unit: Euros (€)
Quick Facts about Brussels
Brussels region is made up of 19 separate communes; the City of Brussels is one of these communes has about 150,000 inhabitants and dates back to the original city built in the 13th century. Some fun facts about Brussels include the fact that on last count there are 249 butchers, 874 hairdressers and 647 pharmacies. This can be noticed almost immediately when you walk down the streets, you will see at least 1 hairdresser and 1 or 2 pharmacies, which are marked by giant neon green cross signs.
Brussels is one of the most international cities in the world. 27% of the population is made up of foreigners, not including those who have taken Belgian citizenship. In following with its status as the Capital of Europe (the seat of the European Union), Brussels is the location for 40,000 EU employees, 4,000 NATO employees and hosts about 300 permanent representations: lobby groups, embassies and press corporations.
Conventional name: Brussels Capital-Region / Region de Bruxelles-Capitale
Local name: Bruxelles (French) / Brussels (Dutch)
Population: 1,080,790
Area: 161.4 sq km (62.2 sq mi)
Location: An enclave at the south of Flanders Region above the Language Frontier
Official languages: French and Dutch (Flemish)
Brussels dial code: (0)2
Regional symbol: Iris

About Belgium
Belgium has a rich tourism industry and its cities are small and culturally diverse. There are many interesting facts about Belgium that travellers may be interested to find out. Some frequently questions include: What do Belgians speak? Why are the beers, waffles and chocolates so famous? How do I get to Belgium?

History of Brussels
Dating back to the 11th century the city of Brussels has evolved countless times throughout history but some of the monuments, buildings and streets still exist today. Throughout the ages Brussels city has been the home of kings, the hub of activity for trade and enterprise from porcelain to tapestries and to this day you can still see the outline of the original city walls built into the modern cityscape.
Weather and Climate
Brussels’ climate is temperate and mild with winter lows of about 1°C and summer highs of around 23°C. There is rain all-year round so it pays to always have an umbrella or a waterproof jacket when touring around. The rains with the least amount of rain are April and May. On the sunny days, Brussels has a magnificent blue sky which is perfect for taking walks.
Brussels Pact
Also known as the Brussels Treaty (17 March 1948) or the Treaty of Brussels, it is the historical initiation of a European cooperation that set the basis for the current European Union. The Brussels Pact was signed after the end of World War II by representatives of five countries: France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg and the United Kingdom. It was an international contract to build Western European economic, social and cultural cooperation and collective self-defence.
Language
It is an interesting fact about Belgium that Belgians do not share one common language. There are three official languages in Belgium: French, Dutch (Flemish) and German. Language is such an important part of the political and cultural infrastructure that the country created an official language border between the north and south and also a third region which is Brussels. In Brussels people mostly speak French but it is official bilingual so all public signage and documents are in both languages.
European Institutions
After being appointed the seat of the European Union, Brussels has become hub of European Union activity. The following institutions are now operating from Brussels: the European Commission, the European Parliament and NATO (the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation). In recent times the European Council has started to hold all quarterly summits in Brussels.
Local Government
Apart from the European institutions in Brussels, in view of democracy, Brussels has a regional government (Brussels Region) and 19 communes handling the activities of each area of the city. Each commune has its own mayor and cabinet.
Economy
Beer, waffles and chocolate are usually the first trades that come to mind when talking about Belgium or Brussels. There are many other enterprises in Brussels which make up this economy as it handles its role as capital of Belgium and an international hub for foreign dignitaries, diplomats and expatriates.
Local Customs and Traditions
Every visitor to Brussels should know the facts about Belgium, facts about Brussels and of course some handy tips on local customs. It would make your travelling experiences better if you understand what is going on around you and how people will act or react.
Brussels Curiosities
Brussels is a city with centuries of history. Today, it continues to take part on the international stage. But there are a few curious things that have originated in Brussels that have inspired food, photographers, vegetables and animal lovers around the world to be named after it. In this section you will find some real life examples of how Brussels is going down in history in all parts of the world.

Known for its wide, tree-lined boulevards, glorious Belle Époque buildings and a reputation for the high life (which in the 1900s earned its nickname of "Little Paris"), Bucharest, Romania's largest city and capital, is today a bustling metropolis.
Bucharest - Romanian Athenaeum Romanian legend has it that the city of Bucharest was founded on the banks of the Dambovita River by a shepherd named Bucur, whose name literarily means "joy." His flute playing reportedly dazzled the people and his hearty wine from nearby vineyards endeared him to the local traders, who gave his name to the place.
House of the Free Press (Casa Presei Libere)
An impressive edifice standing somewhat menacingly at the entrance to the capital, Casa Scanteii (as it is still universally known) was designed by architect Horia Maicu and completed in 1956, one year after the strikingly similar Palace of Science and Culture in Warsaw, Poland. Originally housing almost all of the capital's printing presses and newsrooms, it, today, carries out much the same function, with the addition of the Bucharest Stock Exchange in the southern wing.
Bucharest - The Arch of Triumph The Arch of Triumph (Arcul de Triumf)
Address: Piata Arcul de Triumf (map)
Initially built of wood in 1922 to honor the bravery of Romanian soldiers who fought in World War I, Bucharest's very own Arc de Triomphe was finished in Deva granite in 1936. Designed by the architect, Petre Antonescu, the Arc stands 85 feet high. An interior staircase allows visitors to climb to the top for a panoramic view of the city. The sculptures decorating the structure were created by leading Romanian artists, including Ion Jalea, Constantin Medrea and Constantin Baraschi.
(Victory Avenue)
Calea Victoriei is Bucharest's oldest and arguably, most charming street. Built in 1692 to link the Old Princely Court to Mogosoaia Palace, it was initially paved with oak beams. The street became Calea Victoriei in 1878, after the Romanian War of Independence victory. Between the two world wars, Calea Victoriei developed into one of the most fashionable streets in the city.
Stroll along this street from Piata Victoriei to Piata Natiunilor Unite to discover some of the most stunning buildings in the city, including the Cantacuzino Palace, the historical Revolution Square, the Military Club, the CEC Headquarters and the National History Museum.
Cantacuzino Palace (Palatul Cantacuzino)
Grigore Cantacuzino was thought to be one of Romania's wealthiest citizens in 1899. As Prime Minister, it was his wish to have the most elegant residence in Bucharest. Using the designs of architect Ion Berindei, the Cantacuzino Palace was built between 1898 and 1900 in eclectic French style. Combining a neoclassical architectural style with art nouveau elements, it features wrought iron balconies, tall arched windows and a porte-cochere (an elegant wrought-iron doorway) flanked by two lions. Today, the palace houses the George Enescu Museum (see details).
Bucharest - The Revolution Square Revolution Square (Piata Revolutiei)
The square gained worldwide notoriety when TV stations around the globe broadcasted Nicolae Ceausescu's final moments in power on December 21, 1989. It was here, at the balcony of the former Communist Party Headquarters, that Ceausescu stared in disbelief as the people gathered in the square below turned on him. He fled the angry crowd in his white helicopter, only to be captured outside of the city a few hours later.
The square's importance stretches back long before the dramatic events of the 1989 Revolution. On the far side of the square stands the former Royal Palace, now home to the National Art Museum, the stunning Romanian Athenaeum and the historic Athenee Palace Hotel. At the south end of the square, you can visit the small, but beautiful, Kretzulescu Church.
The Royal Palace (Palatul Regal)
Erected between 1927 and 1937 in neoclassical style, the palace was home to King Carol II and to his son, King Mihai I, until 1947, when the monarchy was abolished in Romania. It was inside the halls of this palace that King Mihai, aged 18, led a coup that displaced the pro-Nazi government during the World War II and put Romania on the Allies' side. Today, the former Royal palace houses the Romanian National Art Museum (see museum details).
Bucharest - Athenaeum
The Romanian Athenaeum
(Ateneul Roman)
The work of French architect Albert Galleron, who also designed the National Bank of Romania, the Athenaeum was completed in 1888, financed almost entirely with money donated by the general public. One of the preeminent public fundraising campaigns ever in Romania, the "Give a penny for the Athenaeum" campaign saved the project after the original patrons ran out of funds. With its high dome and Doric columns, the Athenaeum resembles an ancient temple.
The lobby has a beautifully painted ceiling decorated in gold leaf, while curved balconies cascade in ringlets off a spiral staircase. A ring of pink marble columns is linked by flowing arches where elaborate brass lanterns hang like gems from a necklace. Inside the concert hall, voluptuous frescoes cover the ceiling and walls. Renowned worldwide for its outstanding acoustics, it is Bucharest's most prestigious concert hall and home of the Romanian George Enescu Philharmonic.
Built in 1914 by French architect Teophile Bradeau, the Athenee Palace (currently a posh Hilton hotel) was made famous in Olivia Manning's novel, Balkan Trilogy, as a centre of intrigue and espionage during World War II. British and German diplomats plotted, schemed and spied on each other in the epoch atmosphere of the hotel's English Bar, while a host of rich and famous gathered and intrigued as their society collapsed around them. The hotel suffered heavy bombing during the war and consequently, was rebuilt in 1945.
Kretzulescu Church
Nestled amid the other historical buildings in Piata Revolutiei, this small red-brick Orthodox church was built in 1722 by the great chancellor Iordache Kretzulescu and his wife, Safta (a daughter of Constantin Brancoveanu) in the Brancovenesti architectural style. The interior frescoes were executed around 1860 by the famous Romanian painter Gheorghe Tattarescu.
Royal Palace Great Concert Hall (Sala Palatului)
Located next to the Royal Palace, the concave-roof structure was built in 1960 to accommodate the 3,000 Communist party members who every five years attended the communist party congress. It was on this stage that Nicolae Ceausescu would deliver his vision of a multilaterally developed socialist society. Today, the massive auditorium plays host to various conferences and events, including some of the George Enescu International Festival concerts.

Budapest may be the capital of the landlocked country, but it's far from dry. In fact, Budapest's most seductive element is water. It springs from underground wells, filling Ottoman, baroque and art-nouveau pools. It flows through the city in the broad and meandering Danube River, dividing Buda and Pest in yin-yang fashion. It even provides welcome relief after a bowl of hot paprika-spiced goulash. With the Buda Hills to the west and the start of the Great Plain to the east, Budapest is the most beautiful city in central Europe.
Few visitors can resist the Budapest baths, but the city's allure goes beyond its spa status. As a large urban centre, Budapest manages to strike a nice balance between nature and development. Hills, islands and parks coexist with Budapest hotels, theatres, cafés, monuments and other buildings in an eclectic array of architectural styles.
Stroll along the Duna korzó, the riverside embankment on the Pest side, or across any of the Danube bridges past young couples embracing passionately. It’s then that you’ll feel the romance that, despite all attempts from both within and without to destroy it, has never died.
WHEN TO TRAVEL to Budapest
Budapest has a relatively mild climate. Nevertheless, summer temperatures often exceed 29°C, and swelteringly hot, humid days are typical in July and August.  January and February are the coldest months when it can be very damp and chilly.  Spring is usually mild and, especially in May, wet. Autumn is quite pleasant, with mild, cooler weather through October.

Cambridge sometimes referred as Silicon Fen due to the growth of high technology in the city, is located at Cambridgeshire County and approximately 50 miles in the north-northeast of London, and surrounded by smaller towns and villages. Cambridge owes its popularity to the presence of the Cambridge University and also for its wonderful medieval architecture that makes of it a fascinating place to explore.
During the period of the Roman invasion, Cambridge experienced his first changes towards the its development, the Romans found in Duroliponte, it was the name that Romans gave to the city, a strategic place of defense of the river Cam called Granta. After Romans has left England, the Saxons renamed the city as Grantebrycg and soon was change to Cantebruge, during this period Cambridge benefited from good trade links across the otherwise hard-to-travel fenlands.
After England its conquer by the Normans in 1066, The king William of Normandy constructed the Castle Hill, during this period the name of the city changed to Grentabrige or Cantebrigge.
Today Cambridge is an internationally acknowledged center of excellence for technology and science, and one of the most visited destinations in England and more than 3 million visitors come to Cambridge every year.

This city has a population of over 146 000 people, it is considered to be the hottest city in France and has over 2000 years of history and culture. Textiles are very popular here too. Here you will find all the necessary information on what the attractions, best time of the year and places to stay are, plus much, much more. Nimes is situated close to the French Mediterranean, and this gives it its phenomenal and attractive weather. You can get either a taxi or a private transfer from the airport to your hotel, positive things to factor in about scheduling a transfer service is that you can do it ahead of time, which means that there will be one less thing to worry about, also that you will know everyone is driving to the hotel together. Eating in Nimes can be a very interesting experience; France is very popular for its culinary qualities and Nimes is famous for its particular food combinations.The city of Cannes is situated in the southern part of France, in the Riviera region and has a population of approximately 70.000 inhabitants. Cannes is very famous around the world for its Film Festival and also for its Cannes Lions Festival. This a luxurious city and has tourism as its principal resource. It is 905 km away from Paris, 164 km from Marseille and 26 km away from Nice. The coast is much visited. The Boulevard de la Croisette is one of the most important attractions for tourists who love the beach, sun and sand. La Croisette is a 12 km waterfront avenue bordered with palm trees, with many elegant hotels, cafés, shops and restaurants around. Visiting the Musée de la Castre is also a good option for seeing impressive works of art, paintings, sculptures and decorative art. And if you want to relax visit the Îles de Lérins (Lérins Islands) with nice views and beautiful beaches. If you just take a walk in the streets of Cannes you will discover a very friendly atmosphere. The main streets are d’Antibes and Meynardier. You will have a good time at the boutiques. Its restaurants are very good, although the prices are sometimes expensive. Depending on whether the restaurant is located on the waterfront or not, the price will be a bit more expensive.

Cardiff is a city proud of its culture, history and language which has undergone a fascinating journey over the last 2000 years. Discover Cardiff's progress from a small settlement, to the world's busiest port, to the modern capital city it is today. Learn about Cardiff Bay, its history and its future as well as what's on offer now.

When arriving in Cardiff, Wales or even the UK for the first time, it's good to have a bit of background knowledge.

Copenhagen is a huge city with several district articles containing sightseeing, restaurant, nightlife and accommodation listings — consider printing them all.
Copenhagen (Danish: København) [1] is the capital of Denmark and what a million Danes call home. This "friendly old girl of a town" is big enough to be a metropolis with shopping, culture and nightlife par excellence, yet still small enough to be intimate, safe and easy to navigate. Overlooking the Øresund strait with Sweden just minutes away, it is a cultural and geographic link between mainland Europe and Scandinavia. This is where old fairy tales blend with flashy new architecture and world-class design; where warm jazz mixes with cold electronica from Copenhagen's basements. You'll feel you've seen it all in a day, but could keep on discovering more for months.

Downtown, Centrum, The Medieval city - a place of many names, but it is the historical heart of Copenhagen, dotted with church spires, historic buildings, narrow alleys and excellent shopping.  
Christianshavn
Originally laid out as a working class neighbourhood 300 years ago, it is now a thriving area notable for its many canals. The Freetown of Christiania is situated in the eastern section of Christianshavn, along with the old naval area, turned trendy: Holmen.  
Vesterbro
This district still has its share of sex shops and sleazy hotels, but has evolved tremendously in recent years and is now one of the hippest places to live, with cafes and bars dotted along its main artery, Istedgade.  
Frederiksberg
A small town which originally formed around Frederiksberg castle, this area is still a separate municipality. Literally surrounded by the City of Copenhagen, it has preserved a special conservative, upscale feel.  
Nørrebro
The most vibrant part of Copenhagen, especially along the main artery, Nørrebrogade, with a mix of immigrants, students, and original working-class Nørrebro-inhabitants.  
Østerbro
A cozy neighbourhood north of the center. Less vibrant than Nørrebro and Vesterbro, and less quaint than Frederiksberg, it is the home of the famous Little Mermaid statue, and the beautifully preserved Kastellet citadel.  
Amager
Once a bastion of the working class, this island with its own distinct atmosphere is booming with new development. Also home of the airport.  
Northern suburbs
A visit to these green suburbs and Dyrehavsbakken, — the world's oldest running amusement park; Frilandsmuseet — the world's largest open air museum; or canoeing down the Mill River, will leave no doubt that this is an altogether different kind of suburbia. It is often colloquially known to locals as the "whisky belt", due to its often well-heeled residents.  
Vestegnen
The suburbs west and south of the city, short on attractions apart from the good Arken art museum, it has some good beaches and camping opportunities.  

If you had dropped by Copenhagen in the eleventh century you would have found yourself looking over a quite small fishing hamlet, with some lazy cattle gazing back at you while chewing fresh green grass from the meadows around the village. Looking east you would see a host of small islets protecting the small fishing harbour from harsh weather — really not the worst place to found a city. If you would rather trust the written word than the archaeologists, the earliest accounts date from the twelfth century, when a bearded clerk (or a renowned historian if you will) called Saxo Gramaticus scribbled down a few lines about the place, Portus Mercatorum, he called it, which was really just a fancy Latin version of Købmannahavn. This has since been mangled into København in modern Danish, and even further mangled into Copenhagen in English, but all it really means is "merchant harbour."

Around 1160 AD, King Valdemar handed over control of the city to the archbishop of Roskilde, Absalon, one of the most colourful characters of the Middle Ages — a curious mix of great churchman, statesman, and warrior. As the country's only city not under the king's control, Absalon saw it thrive and erected a castle on what is today Slotsholmen (the remains are still visible in the catacombs under the present day parliament). As a man of religion he also built a great church, and with those necessities taken care of, Copenhagen quickly gained importance as a natural stop between the two most important Danish cities, the old royal capital Roskilde and Lund in present day Sweden. Endowed with an enviable location on the banks of the important Øresund Strait, it slowly but steadily surpassed the old urban centers. Copenhagen's rise was greatly aided by entrepreneurial trading with friends and foes alike and by prosperous fishing which provided much of Roman Catholic Europe with salted herring for Lent. But with prosperity comes envy and in the years to follow Copenhagen was laid waste and pillaged time and time again, mainly by the German Hanseatic League, which at one point completely destroyed the city.

In case you are wondering about exactly what is so wonderful about Copenhagen, the city's motto is taken from the Frank Loesser song Wonderful Copenhagen featured in the 1952 film Hans Christian Andersen. Sung by Danny Kaye it's a bit of an evergreen, and not accustomed to Hollywood attention the city has stuck to it ever since — what also seems to have stuck is the pronunciation, but don't listen to old Danny, it's koh-pehn-HAY-gehn not koh-pehn-HAH-gehn.

But like a phoenix, Copenhagen repeatedly rose from the ashes. When the Danes kicked out the Pope during the reformation, Roskilde lost its importance as a Roman bishopric and after taking control of the city twenty years earlier, the king moved his residence to Copenhagen. Not terribly keen on seeing their new capital laid waste once more, successive kings built massive fortifications around the city. None more so than King Christian IV, who embarked on a building rampage which not only included the ramparts still visible throughout much of the city but also many present day landmarks like the Round Tower and the stock exchange. Since then Copenhagen was besieged by the Swedes, and then famously bombarded, set ablaze, and nearly destroyed by the British vice admiral Lord Nelson, who in one of two battles for Copenhagen, famously responded to the order to withdraw by saying "You know, Foley, I have only one eye. I have a right to be blind sometimes," and then raised the telescope to his blind eye and touted "I really do not see the signal."

Again, the city shook off its struggles and the population mushroomed during industrialization. When a cholera epidemic did a fine job of killing nearly everyone there wasn't room for, the King finally conceded that long range cannons would render its constraining walls irrelevant, and thus allowed the city to grow outside the now antiquated ramparts. But it was not long before a new modern fortification was built (known as Vestvolden today), which made Copenhagen Europe's most fortified city of the late nineteenth century.

After being subjected to yet another invasion during WWII, the whole idea of a fortified city was thrown out the window and replaced with one of the finest examples of urban planning anywhere — the Finger Plan. Copenhagen is one of few cities in the world to devise a long term plan for growth and then actually stick to it; try placing your hand over a map of Copenhagen with the palm as the city centre, and it's quite obvious why it's called the finger plan. Despite being the laughingstock of the country through the seventies and eighties when wealthy residents all moved out into the fingers, leaving behind an impoverished bankrupt city, a visit these days will prove that the Phoenix has risen once more.

Pelle the Conqueror (Martin Andersen Nexø, 1906-10). An epic novel in three parts and an integral part of the Danish school curriculum portraying the life of two poor Swedish immigrants — a father and son. The two last volumes take place in Copenhagen and describe the rise and the conflicts of the labour movement and global socialism which are so crucial to understanding Danish society today. All in all, it's a very good historical account of life in the city during that period, and above all, a good book.
Smilla's Sense of Snow (Peter Høeg, 1992). Dive into Denmark's curious post-colonial history in this international best seller. Partly set in Copenhagen, partly in Greenland, you are whirled through a murder mystery by Ms. Smilla, a half Danish Inuit brought up in poor Greenland, but now living in the kingdom's affluent and orderly capital. It is a good account of the conflicts and contrasts between two very different parts of the Kingdom, and it offers some spot-on social critique of Danish society in a very engaging way.
The Copenhagen Quartet (Thomas E. Kennedy). Four independent novels totaling well over a thousand pages. Each book is set against the backdrop of one of the four distinct seasons of the Danish capital: Kerrigan's Copenhagen (2002), Bluett's Blue Hours (2003), Greene's Summer (2004), and Danish Fall (2005). The novelist, an American expat, somewhat autobiographically portrays an American writer trying to come to terms with his past with the help of Copenhagen's many bars, with the Danish capital as the co-star. All of the places described in the books are real places that you can go discover.

Copenhagen, as in the rest of Denmark, has four distinct seasons. The best time to visit is definitely the warm period from early May to late August. The current weather forecast can be checked at the Danish Meteorological Institute website [2].

Spring, while a bit risky, as no one knows quite when it sets in, can be the best time to visit the city. On the first warm day, usually in early May, Copenhageners come out of hibernation and flock to the city streets, parks, and outdoor cafes in a veritable explosion of life, relieved that the country's dreary and dark winters are finally over. Many locals consider this the high-point of the year.

Summers in Copenhagen are usually warm with an average temperature of some twenty degrees, and the days are long — reaching the a peak of eighteen hours on the 21st of June. If the weather becomes too hot, you can jump in one of the free pools in the cool harbor waters downtown. Copenhagen's harbor is often considered the world's cleanest urban waterfront. Most of Copenhagen's annual events are held during June and July, and when the sun is out there is always life in the streets.

Autumn and winter have a profound effect on the city. The vibrant summer life withers and the streets go quiet, as most Copenhageners go directly home from work. This is where the Danish concept of hygge sets in, roughly translating into coziness. It is the local way of dealing with the short dark days. Friends and families visit each other for home cooking and conversations by candlelight with quiet music on the stereo. In week 42 the Danes have an autumn holiday, with many events taking place, such as the night of culture. The height of winter is December, where Christmas brings some relief to the short days, with lights and decorations everywhere, in the streets, shops and in peoples' windows. Tivoli opens its doors for the Christmas markets, and most Danes go on a drinking rampage, with the very Danish and traditional Christmas

Cordoba is a city in Andalusia; it is also the capital of the province of Cordoba, it is located in southern Spain. This city has a rich history, and its importance has shifted many times through the epochs, for example:
During the time of the Roman Republic it was named Corduba and it was the capital of Hispania Ulterior.
When if became the Roman Empire, "Corduba" became the capital of Hispania Beatica.
Under the control of the Caliphate of Cordoba, they called it Qurtuba and it was the capital of the region.
In the 11th century, it was the most populous city in the globe and it was known as the world's intellectual capital.
Nowadays you can still see traces of the constructions of these days in the city. You can visit the attractions of the city, such as:the roman mausoleum, the great mosque of Cordoba, the church "Santa Marina de Aguas Santas," etc.

This beautiful area With its small villages of thatch-roofed stone cottages, rolling meadows, grazing sheep and stately manor homes, it looks like what England is supposed to look like. Bordered roughly by Oxford to the southeast, Bath to the southwest, Stratford-upon-Avon to the north and Gloucester to the west, the Cotswolds have an atmosphere unchanged since medieval times—except, that is, by large numbers of tourists. At least two days are needed to visit its charming hamlets: Upper and Lower Slaughter, Stanton, Stanway, Stow-on-the-Wold, Northleach,
Burford and Painswick are among the most popular villages.
Broadway is known for antiques stores and lots of tourists. Cheltenham, a former spa town, retains its fine Regency and Greek Revival buildings. The town of Cirencester has an immense, richly carved parish church and a notable
Roman museum. If you're up for some outdoor activity, take to the 160-km Cotswold Way, a well-travelled footpath (or at least a portion of it). Or find the source of the Thames, just north of the village of Kemble. Lots of other, shorter walking trails are dotted across the region.
The weather in The Cotswolds region is fairly mild year round due to the warm Gulf Stream off England's west coast.
The Cotswolds gets most of its rain in the autumn and winter months, with its driest season being between April and
July. Most visitors tend to come during the spring and autumn months when the

Florissimo is the International flower show, which takes place in Dijon every three years. Some time ago, the Formula 1 Grand Prix of France also took place in this city. Now the race track of Dijon-Prenois hosts many motor sports. And Dijon is also known for its football team which is in the second highest league in French football.Lyon is the third largest city in France and is located 431km (268 miles) southeast of Paris and 311km (193 miles) north of Marseille. It is the capital of the Rhône-Alpes region and the second largest contributor to the French economy after Paris. It has a population of 413 000 inhabitants. Lyon is between two hills, the Fourvière and Croix-Rousse and between two rivers: the turbulent Rhône and the tranquil Saône. Lyon is a very industrial city; textile manufacturing is one of the most important here. But not only that, this city is known as the capital of gastronomy, like Paris, this city has the largest number of Michelin-star restaurants. The most famous chef, Paul Bocuse, has his restaurant in Lyon. Lyon has been listed as UNESCO World Heritage Site since December 1998, specifically the Saint-Jean and the Croix-Rousse areas. This is a very beautiful part of the city with its architectural renaissance buildings and monuments. Lyon is also called the 'city of light' because of its history which began on Fourvière Hill, when the city was under the Romans. The city was proclaimed capital of the three Gauls and it was during this period that Lyon developed in economic, politic, religious and military terms. The tradition of the city of Lights or 'Lugdunum' (as called by the Romans) is still present and every evening more than 100 sites across the city are lit up to show the splendor of Lyon’s architecture.Dijon is the capital city of Burgundy and is located in the centre of the Côte d'Or department, in the eastern part of France. It has a population of more than 200,000 people. In ancient times, Dijon was called Castrum Kelly, and was home to the Dukes of Burgundy (Jean sans Peur, Philippe le Bon and Charles le Téméraire) and was one of the finest cities in Europe, with regard to the arts and sciences. As in many other cities in France, the wine in this city is very good and is often the perfect accompaniment to a delicious regional meal. Dijon is famous for its mustard of the same name, and for an annual flower show. The architecture in Dijon is really amazing and old streets and buildings have been restored to improve the city's appearance for visitors. There are more than 90 historical monuments to be found in Dijon, as well as many mansions dating from the 17th century, in addition to Cathedrals and Palaces, such as the Estate of Rameau and Bossuet where Gustave Eiffel was born.

Edinburgh is a huge city with several district containing restaurant, nightlife and accommodation .

Holyrood PalaceEdinburgh (Gaelic: Dùn Èideann; [1]) is the capital of Scotland located in the Central Belt region of the country. With a population of approximately 450,000 (1 million in the city region), "Auld Reekie" (Edinburgh) manages to combine both ancient and modern in a uniquely Scottish atmosphere. Watched over by the imposing castle, the symbol of the city, Edinburgh combines medieval relics, Georgian grandeur and a powerful layer of modern life with contemporary avant-garde. In Edinburgh, medieval palaces rub shoulders with the best of modern architecture, Gothic churches with amazing museums and galleries. Scotland's throbbing night-life centre, Edinburgh, "the Athens of the North", is also a feast for the mind and the senses, playing host to great restaurants, shops and an unequaled programme of city festivals throughout the year. Hogmanay, the Scottish New Year, kicks off the festivities, which culminate in the high summer with the Tattoo, the International and the Fringe, amongst many others.

The Old and New Towns of Edinburgh were listed as World Heritage Sites by UNESCO in 1995. In 2004, Edinburgh became the first member of the UNESCO Creative Cities initiative when it was designated a City of Literature.

In a 2009 poll by YouGov, Edinburgh was voted the most desirable city to live in the UK.

Edinburgh's districts Old Town
Edinburgh's medieval heart along the Royal Mile, which runs from the Castle to Holyrood Palace. Most of the really famous sites are in this area.  
New Town
The other half of the city centre is the Georgian (late 18th century) New Town. The commercial heart of the city, this is what shopaholics make a beeline for.  
Stockbridge and Canonmills
Exclusive neighbourhood to the north of the New Town, some interesting independent shopping plus the most relaxing spot in the city - the Royal Botanic Garden.  
Leith
Edinburgh's independent-minded port area is a destination in its own right.   Edinburgh/East
The beach district of Portobello and the historic village of Duddingston both lie in the east of the city.  
Edinburgh/South
A popular part of town for students, so there are plenty of interesting places to eat and drink. Further out is Edinburgh's Outdoor Playground of the Pentland Hills, and the intriguing Roslin Chapel.  
Edinburgh/West
Edinburgh's excellent zoo is here, plus the temple of sport that is Murrayfield rugby stadium.  

Entrance to Edinburgh Castle
Railbridge on the Firth of Forth, an engineering marvel constructed in 1890[edit] Understand
Edinburgh is on the east coast of Scotland's central Lowlands, situated on the southern shore of the Firth of Forth. Edinburgh's landscape is the product of ancient volcanism (both the Castle crag and Arthur's Seat are the eroded plugs of volcanoes) and more recent glaciation (carving out valleys south of the castle and the old Nor'Loch, presently the site of the Princes Street Gardens). Impress the locals by knowing that Princes Street is the correct spelling (dedicated plurally and not possessively for King George III's sons - hence the absence of an apostrophe). Don't make the mistake of pronouncing it Princess Street - though many of the locals won't know the difference! And watch out for these two commonly mis-pronounced streets as well: Cockburn (coe-burn) and Buccleuch (buh-clue) are nearly always gotten wrong, to the amusement of the locals.

Edinburgh's historic centre is bisected by Princes Street Gardens, a broad swathe of parkland in the heart of the city. Southwards of the gardens is the castle, perched on top of an extinct volcanic crag, and flanked by the medieval streets of the Old Town following the Royal Mile along the ridge to the east. To the north of Princes Street Gardens lies Princes Street itself - Edinburgh's main shopping boulevard - and the Georgian period New Town, built after 1766 on a regular grid plan.

Edinburgh has been the royal capital of Scotland since 1437.

Edinburgh is noted as a long-lived literary capital of the English-speaking world.

The great Scottish historical novelist Sir Walter Scott was born in the city and has his great monument on Princes Street. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle was also a native of Edinburgh.

More recently, Edinburgh has variously been the home and inspiration for such well-known modern writers as Muriel Spark (author of The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie), Irvine Welsh (author of the 1993 novel Trainspotting, set in the gritty district of Leith), Ian Rankin (a crime writer best known for the Inspector Rebus series, set in Edinburgh), Alexander McCall Smith (The No. 1 Lady Detective's Agency and several novels set in the Scottish capital) and J.K. Rowling of Harry Potter fame.

Edinburgh's climate is most comfortable for the traveler from May to September. That said, the weather in Edinburgh is always changeable and visitors should expect both sunshine and rain, whatever the season. Edinburgh tends to get windy while it rains as well, so be sure to pack either a raincoat or a sturdy umbrella! Many a tourist has abandoned an inverted umbrella due to the persistent, whipping winds. Summer, the main festival season, combines long daylight hours with lengthy evenings (being so far north, it rarely gets dark before 10 or 11 at night!). Winter can feel bitterly cold, with short daylight hours, however snow is rare and of a short duration, and most of Edinburgh's winter precipitation comes in the form of a chilly rain and sleet. Edinburgh has an abundance of indoor attractions and activities that make the cold winter days fly by. In other words, bring a coat big lad, will ya? Do not worry about being cold in winter, because like many modern countries all buildings including the old ones are warm, dry and insulated.


The Hub on the Royal Mile, the former Tollbooth Kirk is the headquarters of the Edinburgh International Festival[edit] When to go
Travellers should note that Edinburgh becomes overwhelmingly crowded (accommodation-wise) during the main festival periods of high summer (August to early September) and Hogmanay (around New Year's Day / 1 January). Visitors at these times should plan well ahead (even more than a year in advance!) for booking central accommodation and event tickets at these times.

Edinburgh International Airport (IATA: EDI) [2], the busiest airport in Scotland, is situated some 10 miles west of the city. The airport offers a wide range of domestic and international flights to Europe and North America. Many visitors to the city arrive via a connecting flight from London. Edinburgh Airport does, however, have a daily flight to and from Newark (Continental Airlines), a 25 minute train ride or drive from New York City and also a daily flight to and from Atlanta, Georgia and New York City (Delta Air Lines). In comparison to most Scottish airports, Edinburgh's European flight network is well developed, with frequent scheduled flights to destinations such as Amsterdam, Berlin, Brussels, Copenhagen, Dublin, Frankfurt, Geneva, Helsinki, Kaunas, Madrid, Milan, Munich, Oslo, Paris, Rome, Stockholm,Warsaw and Zurich.

A dedicated airport bus service, Airlink Express [3], service 100, runs from outside the terminal building to Edinburgh city centre (Waverley Bridge) at least every 10 minutes until 00.22 and then every 30 minutes until 04.45. The bus leaves from Waverley Bridge (opposite entrance to train station) for the Airport at the same intervals 24/7. Adult fares are £3.50 for a single, £6 for an open return and the journey takes an average 25 mins. The buses offer free wi-fi connection, sockets for charging electrical equipment, CCTV allowing top-deck passengers to monitor their luggage, and electronic "next-stop" information. The Airlink buses have a dedicated blue livery which makes them easy to distinguish from the rest of the Lothian fleet.

A cheaper alternative is the ordinary Lothian Buses service 35, which runs from the bus stance outside the arrivals building to Ocean Terminal via the Royal Mile/High Street. Although much slower and with less provision for baggage than the 100, it is far cheaper at £1.30 a single and also allows the use of day tickets and other options that work on all Lothian Buses services, a great option for getting straight to the city if travelling lightly or on a budget

The concept of leisure travel in the contemporary sense evolved on the French Riviera back in the 1920s. Travelling the French Riviera is the time to indulge solely in the pleasures of relaxing and sun worshipping. This is where
Picasso spent the summer with his family in Cap d'Antibes (an area he loved as a painter for its limpid light and vibrant colours) and since then travelling to the French Riviera as a destination has flourished into the glittering playground of conspicuous wealth and glamour you see today.
Nowadays, many feel the original lyrical charm of the French Riviera lies in the less developed hinterlands, where one can gaze down from more peaceful retreats to the congested shoreline, overflowing with summer revellers and million-dollar yachts.
The French Riviera stretches from Marseille to the Italian border. It twists and turns for more than 160
kilometres, and is dotted with glitzy legends such as St-Tropez and Cannes, Cap Ferrat, Monaco and Nice. The French Riviera remains one of Europe’s most glamorous holiday destinations and unlike many resort areas, it does not close.
Beautiful warm weather can be enjoyed from May to September in the French Riviera, August being the busy peak season.  Autumn in the French Riviera October/November and early spring March/April is the rainy season.

Geneva (French: Genève, German: Genf) [1], Switzerland's second-most populous city, is one of the world's major centers of international diplomacy, having served as the site of the initial headquarters of the International Committee of the Red Cross. Although the United Nations is now headquartered in New York, the organization still retains a large presence in Geneva at the Palais des Nations and many of its sister/child organizations, such as the World Health Organization and ILO. Geneva itself has only 188'000 citizens but 780'000 people live in the metropolitan region (Jan. 2009).

In 1536, a young man named Jean Calvin, fleeing the persecution of Protestants in France, spent a night in Geneva. As it turned out, he was to do a lot more there than sleeping. After being expelled from Geneva for nearly three years, Calvin returned triumphantly in 1541 to help elevate the city to the rank of a Protestant Rome. The intellectual influence of the Reformation extended to all realms of Genevan life: politics, economy, and administration.

Geneva was an independent republic from at least the 16th century until it became a Swiss Canton on 31 Dec 1813. This is a point of some pride to the Genevois, who still refer to their Canton as the République et Canton de Genève. A favorite festival is the yearly celebration of the Escalade, which commemorates a failed attempt in 1602 by the forces of the Dukes of Savoy to invade the city by climbing and otherwise breaching the city walls. Having turned aside this invasion attempt at the cost of only 16 lives, Geneva had secured its liberty, since the House of Savoy was never again strong enough on this side of the Alps to attempt such an invasion.

Geneva is still a very proud city. Some find it downright stuffy, although there is quite a bit more life to be found if you look under the surface, especially if you speak some French.

Geneva is officially a French-speaking city, and the vast majority of the population speak French. All advertisements, information, and signage are in French. With the large international presence, English takes a close second. Spanish, Russian, Portuguese, and Arabic speakers abound, and of course you will also occasionally hear German and Italian.

Gothenburg  (Swedish: Göteborg, pronounced "Yeutebory") is the second largest city in Sweden with approximately 500,000 inhabitants (2008) in the municipality. It is situated on Sweden's west coast at the outlet of the Göta river. With over 60,000 students Gothenburg University is the largest in Scandinavia. Gothenburg has a reputation of being a friendly place, even more welcoming than the Swedish capital.
Gothenburg is a city founded in the beginning of the 17th century by the Swedish King, Gustav II Adolf. It was once the center of the Swedish ship-building industry but with rising competition from foreign ship yards, many of the dry docks had to close down. Much of the inner harbor area has changed from industrial ship building to high technology and education, representative of the general change in the city. Today Gothenburg has both international sporting events, concerts, and conventions as well as a small town feel.
Politically it is dominated by the Social Democrats (Roughly equivalent to the British Labour Party), and has been for many years, though Swedish politics is moving slightly to the right.
The working-class history is easily visible, for example in the harbour area. Traditionally there has been few fashion houses or posh cafeterias, but that has changed in recent years with the reconstruction of the indoor malls in the city centre and with the opening of quite a number of American-styled coffee shops. In the city centre, where the university is located, there are many students.
The intonation (which is however neither a dialect nor an accent) of the Gothenburgers is, for other Swedes, associated with cheerfulness and witty humour.
Christine Church and the Town HallTourist information
There are two tourist information offices in central Gothenburg - one in the Nordstan shopping center (next to the central train station) and one on Kungsportsplatsen about ten minutes walk from Nordstan. Gothenburg's official tourist website [2] is another source of information. They offer the Gothenburg City Pass which allows entry into many tourist attractions, grand houses, museums as well as offering free travel on trams and buses and free parking. Recently, this pass was made available to people's mobile phones making it not only the most cost effective means of sight seeing but also the most convenient.

Helsinki has a character that perfectly reflects its geographical location, on the historical fault-line between the Swedish and Russian empires. Although the Finnish capital is unmistakably Scandinavian, the architecture and the psyche of its inhabitants show the clear influence of mother Russia.Although small (the population has only just climbed above 500,000), Helsinki is one of the more accessible European capitals. A cosmopolitan vibe pervades the city, museums and theatres abound, the tidy streets are packed with bars, restaurants and cafés, and nothing is more than a short tram ride away from the centre.

Innsbruck is the capital city of the federal state of Tyrol in western Austria. It is located in the Inn Valley at the junction with the Wipptal (Sill River), which provides access to the Brenner Pass, some 30 km (18.64 mi) south of Innsbruck. Located in the broad valley between high mountains, the Nordkette (Hafelekar, 2,334 metres (7,657 ft) in the north, Patscherkofel (2,246 metres (7,369 ft)) and Serles (2,718 metres (8,917 ft)) in the south, it is an internationally renowned winter sports centre, and hosted the 1964 and 1976 Winter Olympics and the 1984 and 1988 Winter Paralympics. It is to host the 1st Winter Youth Olympics in 2012. The word bruck comes from the German word Brücke meaning "bridge" which leads to "the bridge over the Inn".

Covered pedestrian bridge over The Inn River.
Earliest traces suggest initial inhabitation in the early Stone Age. Surviving pre-Roman place names show that the area has been populated continuously. In the fourth century the Romans established the army station Veldidena (the name survives in today's urban district Wilten) at Oenipons (Innsbruck), to protect the economically important commercial road from Verona-Brenner-Augsburg.

The first mention of Innsbruck dates back to the name Oeni Pontum or Oeni Pons which is Latin for bridge (pons) over the Inn (Oenus), which was an important crossing point over the river Inn. The city's seal and coat of arms show a bird's-eye view of the Inn bridge, a design used since 1267. The route over the Brenner Pass was then a major transport and communications link between the north and the south, and the easiest route across the Alps. The revenues generated by serving as a transit station enabled the city to flourish.

Innsbruck became the capital of all Tyrol in 1429 and in the fifteenth century the city became a centre of European politics and culture as emperor Maximilian I also resided in Innsbruck in the 1490s. The city benefited from the emperor's presence as can be seen for example in the so called Hofkirche. Here a funeral monument for Maximilian was planned and erected partly by his successors. The ensemble with a cenotaph and the bronze statutes of real and mythical ancestors of the Habsburgian emperor are one of the main artistic monuments of Innsbruck.

In 1564 Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria received the rulership over Tirol and other Further Austrian possessions administrated from Innsbruck up to the 18th century. He had Schloss Ambras built and arranged there his unique Renaissance collections nowadays mainly part of Vienna's Kunsthistorisches Museum. Up to 1665 a stirps of the Habsburgian dynasty ruled in Innsbruck with an independent court. In the 1620s the first opera house north of the Alps was erected in Innsbruck (Dogana).

In 1669 the university was founded. Also as a compensation for the court as emperor Leopold I again reigned from Vienna and the Tyrolean stirps of the Habsburg dynasty had ended in 1665.

During the Napoleonic wars Tyrol was ceded to Bavaria, ally of France. Andreas Hofer led a Tyrolean peasant army to victory on the Berg Isel against the combined Bavarian and French forces, and then made Innsbruck the centre of his administration. The combined army later overran the Tyrolean militia army and until 1814 Innsbruck was part of Bavaria. After the Vienna Congress Austrian rule was restored. The Tyrolean hero Andreas Hofer was executed in Mantua; his remains were returned to Innsbruck in 1823 and interred in the Franciscan church.

The city of Irkutsk, with attractive embankments along the river and many surviving wooden houses on its tree-lined streets, is an administrative and cultural centre for Eastern Siberia and of the Russian Far East. The wide streets and ornate, continental architecture led to Irkutsk being called the capital of Siberia, the pearl of Siberia, and even Paris of Siberia.Irkutsk became the major center of intellectual and social life for Russian artists, officers and nobles exiles, and much of the city's cultural heritage comes from them; also, many of their wooden houses filled with pastel colour, adorned with ornate, hand-carved decorations, brick mansions and the dark black wooden cabins survive today in stark contrast with the standard Soviet apartment blocks that surround them. Ice palaces and sculptures are the main attraction, while classic Russian palaces are of interest to those wanting to know more about the city's history.In summer, there are a lot of travellers from all over the world going to the lake from Irkutsk. If you don’t have time for the lake but just several hours in the city, you can buy any type of Baikal Lake fish there as well as caviar. Irkutsk is a really nice place to spend several days, or just going to the trip to Baikal Lake.Another of Irkutsk's attractions is the proximity to lovely, 636km long Lake Baikal where hiking, biking, horse trekking, fishing and boating are big time. The north end is the most beautiful and isolated. Listvyanka village is a popular place to stay for tourists. Irkutsk is located 60km east of the world famous Lake Baikal. This city surrounded by natural beauty. Irkust is an industrial center, a port, the site of a hydroelectric dam and a major stop along the Trans-Siberian Railway.

Ukrainian craftsmen selling traditional Ukrainian goods such as pottery, embroidery, and handicrafts can be found throughout the city particularly in shops at Pechersk Lavra and Saint Sophia Cathedral. The main street, Khreshchatyk, runs between two steep hills, parallel about half a kilometer west, is Volodymyrska, the main street of the Old Kyiv area.
Kyiv is also an important educational and scientific centre in Eastern Europe, various universities and science academies including National Taras Shevchenko University of Kyiv and the Kyiv Polytechnic Institute are located here.
The transliteration of the city’s name from Ukrainian is Kyiv; Kiev is the transliteration from the Russian language. The name Kyiv is said to derive from the name of Kyi, one of the four legendary brothers who founded the city (Kyi, Shchek, Khoryv and sister Lybid').
The average summer temperature in Kyiv is 24°C, and in winter is -4°C. People in Kyiv are very hospitable. Kyiv is known as the “Green City” for its abundant botanical gardens, parks and beautiful trees. The city has an extensive infrastructure and highly developed system of public transport, including the Kyiv Metro. Russian is widely spoken in Kyiv, particularly in business, including shops and restaurants. For sure, your stay in Kyiv will become one of your most memorable experiences.
Kyiv or Kiev is truly one of the most beautiful cities of the world. Here in Kyiv there are some of the most beautiful old buildings and churches of the world. You will have to spend at least a week to see all the fantastically preserved Orthodox churches; the foremost are Saint Sophia Cathedral with its mosaics and frescoes dating back to the 11th century, the Baroque Saint Andrew's Church of Kyiv, the 19th-century St. Volodymyr's Cathedral, the St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery and the Pechersk Lavra featuring several monasteries and cathedrals on its grounds. Other renowned landmarks include the Golden Gate of Kyiv which date back to 1037.
There are numerous art galleries, museums, fantastic cafes, restaurants and three malls. The many theatres and opera houses provide indoor entertainment, most performances are held in Ukrainian and Russian. The Kyiv Opera House presents excellent opera and ballet shows. The Ivan Franko Theatre is a centre of Ukrainian plays.
Architectural attractions in Kyiv suffered severely damage during World War II and in the earlier Soviet Times. Today many architectural and art treasures that were destroyed has been extensively restored and now adorn the city enhancing its natural beauty.

Liverpool located on the north bank of the River Mersey, in the north-west of England is a great shipping port and industrial center.
Internationally famous for its maritime heritage, architecture, music and sports, Liverpool is the home of The Beatles, certainly the most famous rock band in the world, the Liverpool FC and Everton FC and also is a major port for transatlantic shipping in England. Liverpool boast wealth architecture with Victorian, Georgian and Neoclassical buildings that attract to thousands of visitor every year, also is home of Europe's oldest Chinatown.
Liverpool has received World Heritage City status from UNESCO. Is the third city in the UK that has this honor, the other two cities are Bath and Edinburgh. This recognition highlights the importance of Liverpool as a commercial port at the time of Britain’s greatest global influence and includes the Waterfront, commercial and cultural districts including an area of warehouses, Pier Head and the historic docks. Also Liverpool was awarded as European Capital of Culture 2008.

Ljubljana lies in a basin between the Karst and the alpine regions at 298 metres above sea level. We like to say it is sufficiently large to contain everything that a capital should have, and small enough to preserve the individuality of its inhabitants. It is a city with a soul, featured by the Baroque Old Town which is nestled at the foot of Castle Hill, the Art Nouveau mansions as well as some of the masterpieces of the world renowned architect Jože Plecnik.
If one is to believe the legend, then the founder of Ljubljana was the Greek prince Jason, together with his companions, the Argonauts. According to the legend, Jason and the Argonauts, while fleeing from King Aites, from whom they had stolen the golden fleece, sailed from the Black Sea up the Danube, from the Danube into the Sava, and from the Sava into the Ljubljanica.
Around about here Jason encountered a terrible monster, which he fought and slew. This monster was the Ljubljana dragon, which now has its permanent abode on top of the castle tower on the Ljubljana coat of arms. At a national referendum held on December 23, 1990, the people of Slovenia voted for independence and sovereignity and on June 25, 1991, the Republic of Slovenia proclaimed its independence.
With this, Ljubljana became the capital of the new state, the heart of the political, economic, cultural and scientific life of the Slovene nation.
The significant mile stone for Ljubljana was Slovenia's accession to the European Union on 1 May 2004.
Ljubljana, with only some 276.000 inhabitants, combines the compactness of a small city with the facilities of a metropolis and, compared with other European capitals, remains a city on a human scale.

London is today one of the world's most important business, financial and cultural centres, and its influence in politics, education, entertainment, media, fashion and the arts all contribute to its status as one of the most major global cities in the world. London has a population of 7.7 million and it is the most populous city in the European Union. Its population is very cosmopolitan, drawing from a wide range of peoples, cultures and religions, speaking over 300 different languages, mixing they culture, traditions, music, festivals and many others. London is an international transport hub, with five international airports and a large port. It serves as the largest aviation hub in the world, and its main airport, the multi terminal Heathrow, carries more international passengers than any other airport in the world.Despite a population more than 30% of London is made up of parks and green space, greater than any other city of its size in the world. This space provides the perfect opportunity for walks, relaxation or sporting activities. Compare hotels in London. London is a very accessible city; it has five international airports, an efficient road network and extensive Underground, train, bus, and taxi services. The city is famous for a wealth of history and culture. Home to Britain’s national art collections, the Royal family and a host of major attractions, London’s rich history, striking architecture and over 200 museums offer a unique cultural experience.London is a major tourist destination and one of the world’s most remarkable and exciting cities, with iconic landmarks including the Houses of Parliament, Tower Bridge, the Tower of London, Westminster Abbey, Buckingham Palace and the London Eye amongst its many attractions, along with famous institutions such as the British Museum and the National Gallery. It has something to offer every type of traveller.London is the capital city of England and the United Kingdom, a mix of history, architecture and culture has created an amazing and constantly evolving city.

Lucerne (Luzern in German, Lozärn in Swiss-German) [1] is a beautiful small city in the heartland of Switzerland, across the lake from Altdorf, where legend has it William Tell shot an apple off of his son's head. In addition to being a fine place to visit in and of itself Lucerne is a great base from which to explore famous Swiss sites such as Mount Rigi and the Rütli Meadow.

Mnt. Pilatus and the covered bridge in Lucerne

The first city to join the Swiss Confederation, today Lucerne is a lovely small city with a thriving tourism industry, owing mainly to its status as a gateway to Central Switzerland. The city became a center of Swiss history and legend, and is the setting for the most memorable part of the William Tell legend (the bit with the boy and the apple).

Tourism in Lucerne has a distinguished history dating from the mid 19th century, with Mark Twain among them. In "A Tramp Abroad" he recalls the nascent souvenir business, and other budding examples of the tourism trade.

Lugano is a lakeside city in Ticino, the Italian-speaking part of southern Switzerland. Part of a temperate micro-climate, Lugano offers palm trees, picturesque boulevards, stunning views of the lake and the Alps, and plenty of opportunity for outdoor and indoor activities. Lugano also makes a good base for visiting other cities and sites in the area. The city is a pleasant place to relax in the summertime and is only half an hour away from Lake Como.

Luhansk ranks among the most industrialized regions of Ukraine, the major branch of industry in the city is heavy engineering; its most important industries are machine building and metal-working. Spare parts for motor vehicles, steel tubes, coal-mining equipment, and precision instruments are made there. Luhansk is also the home of a major diesel-locomotive building enterprise. The energy to run the industries is supplied by the Luhansk Power Station. There are also wood and timber-working industries in Luhansk.
Apart from its industry, Luhansk is also recognized as an important cultural and educational centre. The cultural facilities of the city include several Drama Theatres, a Philharmonic Society, and numerous Museums including the Museum of Regional Studies and an Art Museum, as well as a Puppet Theatre.
The most renowned institutions of higher education of Luhansk include the East-Ukrainian National University, Shevchenko State Pedagogical University, State Agricultural University, and State Medical University. There are also dozens of technical, vocational and secondary schools in the city.
There are a lot of different attractions to visit in Luhansk such as the Chernobyl Memorial, St. Peter and St. Paul's Cathedral, Heroes Square, Cannon of Luhansk, Charles Gascoigne Monument, Revolution Fighters Square, the house of Dal's birth, Derkul horse factory, Mergeleva Ridge, among many others.
Climate in Luhansk is temperate continental. Summer is hot, with an average temperature on 22ºC in July; winter is cold, with an average temperature of -7ºC in January.
Most people speak Russian in Luhansk Oblast, although ethnic Ukrainians constitute the majority of the population.
Luhansk is the birth place of the famous Russian lexicographer Vladimir Dal and the mixed martial arts champion Fedor Emelianenko.
Finally, Luhansk is home to the Ukrainian Premier League team FC Zorya Luhansk.
Luhansk also known as Lugansk or Luhans'k is a city located in south-eastern Ukraine about 900 km to the east from Kyiv, it is also the administrative centre and the capital of the Luhansk Oblast. The city is part of the Donets Basin and lies at the confluence of the Luhan (Lugan) and Vilkhivka (Olkhovaya) rivers.

Lviv also boasts a number of theatres, art galleries and museums (there are more than 30) being the most notable the National Museum and Gallery of Lviv, the Pharmacy Museum, and the Museum of Religion. The Lviv Theatre of Opera and Ballet host world-class performances. The Philharmonic Orchestra is also a real cultural treat.
In November 1998 the historic city centre of Lviv (Lviv's Old Town) was officially included on the UNESCO World Heritage List, it has beautiful attractions including the Market Square (Ploshcha Rynok) with its Black House, the Armenian Cathedral, the St. George's Cathedral, the Latin Cathedral, the Church of Body of Christ of the Dominican Order, the Dominican Abbey and the Chapel of Boim family.
The architectural landscape of Lviv joins different epochs and numerous styles, examples of gothic (Latin Cathedral), baroque-rococo (St. George's Cathedral), mannerism (Bernardine church and monastery), renaissance (The Chapel of Boimes) coexist en perfect communion giving the City its unique beauty.
Other interesting attractions are the ancient buildings situated around Lviv such as Olesko Castle, Pomoriany Castle and Pidhirtsi Castle. The Lviv High Castle (Vysokyi zamok) is the highest point of the city and overlooks the historic city centre of Lviv. The historic Lychakivskiy Cemetery dating back to 1787 is a must.
Lviv is also the seat of the Roman Catholic Ukrainian Orthodox and Armenian Orthodox archbishops.
People are friendly and polite to strangers in Lviv; about the weather, the winter is fairly cold and the summers are mild.
Lviv (also spelled L’viv, Lvov, and Lemberg), located in Western Ukraine, is one of the most beautiful cities in Eastern Europe and one of the most important cultural centres of Ukraine, the city is home of the Lviv University which was founded in the 17th century by the Polish King John II Casimir of Poland (Jan II Kazimierz Waza).
Lviv is the most Ukrainian region of the independent Ukraine. Lviv is also a major industrial centre; manufacturing includes electronic equipment, cars, agricultural machines, motor vehicles, chemicals, processed food and textiles
Near Lviv are located the spa towns of Truskavets, Morshyn and Skhidnytsia, there are also ski centers in Slavsko and Tysovets.

Maastricht’s biggest attractions are the underground tours to the casemates. Another fun attraction is a boat ride over the river Meuse. The tripoint, white village of Thorn, Valkenburg and Gaiapark Kerkrade Zoo are just a short ride away from Maastricht.
The white village of Thorn was once a miniature principality led by an abbes and a convent of twenty noble ladies. Now it’s a historical site that attracts many tourist who want to see Thorn’s cobbled streets, beautiful Abbey Church and characteristic white houses with their own eyes.
History of Thorn
The history of Thorn dates back to the late 10th century. In the course of time, Thorn developed into a miniature principality with its own jurisprudence and currency. In 1794, the aristocrats fled with the arrival of the French.
The French claimed a tax based on the size of the windows, which the poor population, often living in large houses formerly belonging to wealthy people, could not afford. So they bricked up many windows and tried to cover up their poverty by whitewashing their houses.
Panorama Thorn
The municipal museum "The Land of Thorn" allows you to visit the Panorama Thorn. This is a three dimensional painting that depicts the historic core. You can also visit the Chapel under the Linden. This is only 2 kilometers outside the historic center and well worth the walk.

Manchester  lies at the heart of Greater Manchester in the north west of England.It Is within The Historic County Boundaries of Lancashire,and part of The County Palatine of Lancashire,and The Duchy of Lancaster. The city proper has a population of around half a million, while the larger conurbation, referred to as either Greater Manchester or Manchester City Region, has over 2.6 million inhabitants. The ten component parts of the conurbation are working much more closely together, of late. The Greater Manchester Combined Authority was created on April 1st 2011.

Manchester is known by some for its influence on the histories of industry and music, and for its sporting connections. It has a large number of students. It is seen by many as the "capital" of the north of England, the second city of the United Kingdom and is home to the UK's largest airport outside London, which is owned by the ten local authorities of Greater Manchester. Others view Birmingham as the second city, but it is not an official sanction and opinion is very much divided, whilst Leeds also lays claim to capital of the north.

Manchester is in the northwest region of England, about equidistant between Liverpool and Leeds. Although it has the image of being very wet the rainfall and number of rainy days in Manchester are less than the UK average.

Manchester once had a negative reputation derived from its industrial past. Things have dramatically changed in the last decade and now the city has a vibrant, exciting air. Investment in the city's regeneration following the 1996 IRA bomb and 2002 Commonwealth Games has paid off and Manchester is well worth a visit, even if just for a couple of days, or for longer, if you plan to use it as a base to explore northern England and North Wales.

Manchester is becoming more and more a city where people are choosing to settle. It is seen by many as young, vibrant and cutting edge city, where there is always something happening. Many see their city as a rival to London, albeit on a more human scale; nevermind the ongoing battle with Birmingham for "The Second City" title. This feud seems to go on and on and hinges, at least in population size, on how you add up the numbers. If you compare Greater Manchester's population to Birmingham's and its neighbouring towns and districts, Birmingham pips Manchester to the post by a 100,000 or so. However if you look at the actual population of the city of Birmingham, which is more than 1 million, it is more than twice as big, in terms of population, as the actual city of Manchester which has a population of around 450,000 people. But the city argues that population is just one aspect and that history and contributions to the world should also be considered. The "Manchester brand" is seen to extend well beyond the city's boundaries (covering all of neighbouring Salford & Trafford, as well as districts of other boroughs) and even beyond those of Greater Manchester. This serves to reflect the influence it has on the wider region as a whole.

Over the years, many have moved to Manchester from London. These people are by no means all returning to their northern roots. Some are from overseas, who stopped off down south on their way north in search of a more affordable urban existence. Manchester is a friendly city as well. Northerners do talk to each other and to strangers. Just compare asking for directions in London and Manchester and the difference is often clear. Of late, locals seem more proud than ever of Manchester and all it offers. Some outsiders may find this fierce pride in their city somewhat "un-British," but it is very similar to that of Australians in their country. Positive comments and praise go down a treat with the locals, and with all that has happened in recent years, such is often due.

Manchester was the site of the Roman Fort Mamucium (breast-shaped) in AD 79 but a town was not built until the 13th Century. The old Roman road that ran to the nearby fort of Coccium (Wigan) is mirrored today by the route through Atherton & Tyldesley. A priests' college and church ( now Chetham's School and Library and the Cathedral ) were established in Manchester in 1421. Early evidence of its tendency towards political radicalism was its support for Parliament during the Civil War and in 1745 for the Jacobite forces of the Young Pretender.

It was not until the start of the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th Centuries that this small Medieval town would build its fortune. The presence of an existing cloth trade, coupled with the mechanization of spinning in nearby Bolton, created a thriving cotton industry in Manchester. The damp, humid atmosphere was good for cotton spinning since it meant less broken threads and cut down on the risk of explosions from cotton dust. Water power rapidly gave way here to steam invented by Boulton and Watt and a steam-driven factory was built in the Ancoats Northern Quarter section of the city. By the end of the 19th Century, Manchester was one of the 10 biggest urban centres on earth (even before counting the wider population, within 50 miles of the Northern England region, such as Liverpool, Sheffield, Bradford, Leeds, and Central Lancashire ).

Whitworth, inventor of the eponymous mass-cut screw thread, also manufactured his equally revolutionary rifled guns in huge quantities at his factory on Sackville Street. After their initial meeting at the Midland Hotel, still one of the city's most luxurious, Rolls and Royce began manufacture of their luxury motor cars in Hulme.

Trafford Park, in Trafford, was to become the first industrial estate in the world, housing the Ford Motor Company and much of the pre-wartime aircraft industry, notably the 'Lancaster' Bombers of the AVRO Co.

Manchester's success during the Victorian era and before is evident everywhere you look. Great Ancoats Street was a source of wonder to Schinkel, the neo-classical architect from Berlin. Equally grandiose neo-Gothic buildings line the old Financial District around King Street, and public institutions such as the University and the many libraries are dotted around everywhere. There is even a statue of Abraham Lincoln in Lincoln Square (Brazennose Street, straight across Albert Square from the Town Hall main entrance) commemorating his personal thanks for Manchester's support during a cotton famine created by Britain's refusal to run the Federal blockade of the slave-owning Confederacy during the American Civil War.

Continuing its radical political tradition, Manchester was the home of opposition to the Corn Laws and espoused Free Trade, as well as Chartism and the Great Reform Act. It was instrumental in the establishment of socialism in the UK. Both Engels and Marx frequented the city; the former conducted his famous inquiry into the condition of the working class, and the latter sought to draw universal rules from the particular circumstances of the early industrial revolution, with disastrous consequences in the 20th century. Cleaving to a more gently pragmatic English tradition it was the birthplace of the Trades Union Congress which led to the creation of the Labour Party. It was also home to a number of philanthropists of the industrial age, such as John Owens and John Dalton, who bequeathed large parts of their fortunes to improving the city.

In more recent times, Manchester has been famous for its influence on the UK music scene. The Madchester movement of the early 1980s, started by Factory Records and Joy Division, led to the creation of the Haçienda nightclub (now unfortunately demolished after standing empty for many years) and the birth of modern club culture. Manchester has given life to many hugely successful musicians, among them The Stone Roses, The Smiths, The Fall, Joy Division/New Order, The Happy Mondays, Oasis, James, and Badly Drawn Boy.

At 11L20 a.m., on Saturday, 15 June 1996, Manchester's city centre was rocked by a huge IRA bomb blast. Although preliminary intelligence managed to clear people from the scene enough for there to be no fatalities, the very heart of the city was ripped to shreds. A huge amount of money and effort was put into regenerating this bomb damaged part of the centre, redubbed the Millennium Quarter. The area has renewed interest in the centre and contains the entertainment and shopping heart of the city.


Central Manchester is home to two of the largest universities in the UK. The University of Manchester (formed from a merger of Manchester University and the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST)) [3] and Manchester Metropolitan University (aka 'Man Met', formerly the Polytechnic, itself a conglomeration of municipal colleges), as well as the Royal Northern College of Music. There is also a university in Salford, within one mile of the city centre, which is renowned as a European Centre of excellence in Media. Together they create a body of over 86,000 students living full-time in the city.

Manchester is often named 'best student city'. It is very welcoming to the student lifestyle and many establishments in the centre and South Manchester are geared towards students; eating and drinking in Manchester can be very inexpensive due to the high competition that goes on between these establishments.

However, if you want to be far from students, there are many places that are not frequented by students although you may have to be prepared to pay a little extra. Also, a few places have a strictly 21+ policy so take identification with you. But those places are quite rare. In the student areas of Fallowfield and Withington, some venues operate a student-only policy so production of a student card (or something resembling a student card) is necessary.

Manchester is famous all over the world thanks to its football clubs, including Manchester United (Old Trafford) and Manchester City (City of Manchester Stadium, Sportcity).

Old Trafford is also home to the Lancashire County Cricket Club. despite no longer being a part of the county of Lancashire.

In 2002, Manchester was the host to the Commonwealth Games and a large area of East Manchester was converted into a new Sportcity, the centre-piece of which is the new athletics and football stadium.

The Manchester Velodrome started off the whole regeneration of East Manchester and formed part of the bid for the 2002 Commonwealth Games (and for Manchester's failed bid for the 2000 Olympics). Britain's great success in the cycling events in the 2008 Olympics is very much due this venue and most of the medal winners are based in and around the city. However the London-centric authorities, preparing for the 2012 London Olympics, plan to build a venue in the capital and are not willing to share events around the country. Some still fear that Manchester may be sidelined furthermore in the future. The UK authorities have always been lukewarm to any Olympic bid that was not based on London, claiming that only a capital can host such a large event. Many cities who have hosted the games are not capitals, and this fact reinforces what a centralised country the UK is. Some reports in the press did suggest that the team wishes to keep their base in the city as they are also supported by a large administrative team.

In July 2009, it has been reported that the world's first purpose-built BMX Centre is also to be built on the site. Work on this addition to Sportcity is expected to start in January 2010 and is said to remove any lingering doubts that Manchester will be replaced by London as British Cycling's headquarters after the 2012 Olymipic Games. The centre will be used by athletes preparing for London 2012 and help bring major national and international events to the city. It will also be open to schools,clubs and the local community.
In the Queen's New Year's Honours list in January 2009, some of the locally based cycling heroes were given awards, including a knighthood to Chris Hoy.

Manchester is a very mixed city. Many races and religions have communities in the city and it has a long history of being more tolerant than most cities to people of any background. The very large number of British Citizenship ceremonies, held in Heron House by the Town Hall each year, are testament to this.

Manchester is also extremely gay-friendly and very liberal-minded. It is very well known as being one of "The Big 3" in terms of sexual diversity along with Brighton and London.The Village is an area concentrated around Canal Street and is very popular with people of all sexualities. It is also home to an annual 12 day Pride festival with the involvement of people of all types; attracting all kinds of people: not just from Manchester but from the entire country and abroad ;further reflecting Manchester's unique approach to tolerance and acceptance. Expect to see amongst others the likes of gay police officers, fire fighters and health workers in the good natured parade.

The atmosphere of the village area is very friendly and welcoming; as is Manchester's very large LGBT community; known to be one of the most accepting in the country. It is certainly the most gay friendly major city by far and has the most visible LGBT community of any major city outside London; as well as the highest percentage. Most Mancunians have grown up with a tolerant attitude towards sexuality and it is extremely rare to come across homophobia making Manchester a very welcoming city for LGBT people.














































































































































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But Madrid is not just a cultural destination. It is also a lively metropolis with many pubs, cafes, discotheques and nightclubs open late into the night (nobody is really sure when the Madrileños sleep). It may be the afternoon siesta that gives them the endurance to keep things going well into the night. In fact, on weekends, Madrilenian youth are famous for dancing all night long, stopping off only for having some chocolate y churros at dawn, go home, take a shower, shave, and go to work. Madrid has an amazing quantity of dance halls, tascas, cafes, theaters, movie houses, music halls, and nightclubs. However, many of these offerings are strictly for residents or for Spanish-speakers.After spending much of the 20th century sequestered at the center of a totalitarian regime, Madrid has burst back onto the world stage with an energy redolent of its 16th-century golden age. Beginning in the early 20th century, Madrid grew to be an important industrial centre. Its commercial and industrial life developed very rapidly after the 1890s and is rivalled in Spain only by that of Barcelona. The city's major industrial products include motor vehicles, aircraft, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, processed food, printed materials, and leather goods. Besides its many manufacturing industries. Most of its industry is located in the Southern fringe of the city, where important textile, food and metal working factories are clustered.Especially around Puerta del Sol, you'll find a high concentration of everything relating to food, drinking, entertainment and staying away from your hotels as long as possible. Madrid, during the summer, becomes a virtual free festival because the city sponsors a series of plays, concerts, and films. If you're in Madrid during the second half of May be sure to join Madrileños in celebrating the Feria de San Isidro, which has music, operas, concerts, bullfighting and dancing. In the same way, mid August is when the city celebrates the Verbena de la Paloma. Compare hotels in Madrid.Madrid is the capital of Spain since 1562. Madrid is located on the geographic center of the Iberian Peninsula. Due to this central location and high altitude, the climate of Madrid is characterized by warm dry summers and cool winters. Madrid is the political center of Spain. This is also a cosmopolitan city with cultural and political importance. Its position as a centre for economics, finance, administration and services combines the most modern infrastructure with an important cultural and artistic heritage, the legacy of centuries of fascinating history. So, while Madrid possesses a modern infrastructure, it has preserved the look and feel of many of its historic neighborhoods and streets. For instance, some of its main historic places are the huge Royal Palace of Madrid; the Teatro Real (Royal theatre); the Buen Retiro park; the imposing 19th-century National Library building (founded in 1712); an archaeological museum of international reputation; and three superb art museums: Prado Museum, the Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía and the Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, housed in the renovated Villahermosa Palace.

The Province of Málaga is situated on the southern coast of Spain, in the Autonomous Community of Andalusia. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the South, and by the provinces of Cádiz, Sevilla, Córdoba and Granada. Málaga contains 100 municipalities and 6 regions. Besides the capital, its main cities are Marbella, Vélez-Málaga, Antequera and Ronda. The regions are: La Axarquía, Valle del Guadalhorce, Serranía de Ronda, Comarca de Antequera, Costa del Sol Occidental and Vega de Málaga.
Birthplace of Picasso, the attractive, cosmopolitan city of Málaga is the capital city of the Costa del Sol and lies on a beautiful sweep of bay in Andalucia. Málaga is surrounded by mountains, lying in the southern base of the Axarquía hills, and two rivers, the Guadalmedina and the Guadalhorce. The climate here is mild and equable, the mean annual temperature being about 19 °C (66 °F). Málaga has an International Airport, Pablo Ruiz Picasso Málaga International Airport, that provides the gateway to all of the other Andalusian towns. There are a lot of hotels and tourist facilities to support the number of visitors the surrounding villages and beaches attract each year.

Malmö is Sweden's third largest municipality with a population of 290,007. It is a port city located in the province of Skåne (Scania) on the southern tip of the country.
Founded in 1272 as a fortified port 20km from Lund. Malmö was for centuries the second largest Danish city while Scania was under Danish rule. It served as a hanseatic port and a very lucrative trade area. Malmö dominated the south as the largest market hub until Copenhagen grew larger during the 16th century. In 1658, as a result of many years of war, Denmark ceded the city to Sweden in the Treaty of Roskilde. After an industrial revolution, Malmö grew rapidly but served as one of the earliest and most industrialized cities of Scandinavia but, until the turn of the millennium it was regarded more as a dull worker's city in the backdrop of more cultural cities in Sweden. The opening of the Oresund bridge in 2000 reignited the soul of a bustling hanseatic port that had lay dormant for so many centuries.
Today about 20% of the Malmö population are from various countries, making the city the most cosmopolitan in Sweden. This has contributed to a rich cultural life and many exotic and fine food opportunities. The ship building Kockums company used to be the city's biggest employer, but today the industrial city of old has been replaced by vast areas of middle-class suburban housing and modern eco-friendly neighbourhoods.

Marseille is the second largest city in France and is located on the Mediterranean Sea in the province of Provence. It is 771km (479 miles) south of Paris; 187km (116 miles) southwest of Nice and 31km (19 miles) south of Aix-en-Provence. It is one of the most important cities because it is the largest commercial port in France. Marseille is the capital of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region and is surrounded by many historical buildings. Despite of this Marseille is a modern city with charming beaches and shopping centers. Marseille was known as Phocee and this was because of its founders the Phoceans. The city then became a commercial port having the famous ‘savon de Marseille’ as one of its products. It also became important as a crossroad for many ships in the Mediterranean. This is a very elegant city and now that is easily reached from Paris, it is much more accesible for visitors. As it has always been one of the main points of entry to France, Marseille has attracted many immigrants -mainly from North Africa-, making it into a multicultural melting pot. Marseille has some problems in the past with corruption, the Mafia, crime, racial discrimination and unemployment, mostly in the poorer, immigrant neighborhoods. Nowadays though, the city is in a renaissance period, and is now one of the most visited cities in France.Bordeaux is the capital of The Gironde department with a population of 660,000 people, and is one of the largest cities in France and one of the largest in Europe.Bordeaux is an economic, commercial and industrial centre, but its principal source is the wine trade. All the wine produced in the Bordelaise region is known as Bordeaux wine. In the 5th century, the city lost its importance, but it increased again when the city became the seat of the Dukes of Aquitaine. Commercial activity also increased during this same period.The intellectual reputation of Bordeaux was made by Montaigne and Montesquieu, who was born nearby and who were both magistrates in the city. In the 18th century Bordeaux began exporting wine to England and the relationship between these regions improved. The Third Republic was established in Bordeaux in the National Assembly in 1871. Bordeaux was the temporary seat of The French Government during both World Wars.

Moscow is a peculiar city combining European, Russian and Asian traditions, the city is a fusion of both splendour and ugliness that is evident in the massive concrete slabs and high-rise apartments of the Stalinist era, and in the ornate churches, beautiful neo-classical houses, and the impressive architecture of the old city. Wide grey thoroughfares give way to narrow winding inner city streets, and golden church domes gleam between the looming skyscrapers. It attracts not only those eager to embrace new business and free enterprise.It is also a city of entertainment, the "Heart of the Arts", with theatres and the renowned Moscow Circus, museums, art galleries, the annual Jazz Festival, live music on the town, the Rendezvous in the Park, and summer theatre. It boasts the world's largest and most efficient metro system with gleaming stations deep underground, astonishingly decorated in elegant marble, glittering chandeliers and gilded works of art and magnificent mosaics. It is the soul of the new Russia and an intriguing mix of history and politics, business and culture. Moscow is a metropolis that can often overwhelm with monstrous-sized avenues, unbearable traffic jams, and a 24-hour lifestyle as New York or London that seems to exclude any peace and harmony. But behind that brash facade is a city where a visitor can find those quiet moments of serenity and beauty with a great place for those who love the outdoors like camping, mountain biking, fishing and skiing. Moscow is the capital of Russia located in the midle of the country and includes most of its territory. In Moscow is the Kremlin that would come to be the Russian place where the control has been taken during almost eight centuries in addition to being a religious center. The Red Square is the symbol of Russia and is considered like one of the most beautiful seats in Europe with its exquisite and colourful domes of the Cathedral of the Saint's Basil that for a long time has been associated with the Soviet Union in the minds of Westerners.

Magical Mykonos. Arriving in cosmopolitan Mykonos by ferry is mayhem. The bow doors swing down and within minutes you pour out. Mary poppins style, alongsside refrigerated Lorries, bleating lambs overladen donkeys, crates of mineral water and petrol tankers along with a juggernaut full of the latest quads and mopeds, but there’s good reason for this exhilarating influx. The granite island of Mykonos is known as The Bride of the Aegean, and it certainly must have been a very white wedding “if Architecture has anything to say, it has been said here said French architect, Le Corbusier, about Mykonos.Chora, its sugar-cubed town is an ensemble of whitewashed walls and multi-coloured balconies that drape crimson bougainvillea above snaking alleyways, the grounds of which are as carefully painted as their protective walls. Posing confidently shoulder-to-shoulder, designer boutiques,cafes,galleries,cocktail bars,museums,lace shops ,artists, bakers and shoemakers live in what seems like an inside space, where the ice-blue sky is the ceiling to their integrated home. Every summer in their thousands, the bronzed and aesthetically gifted catwalk their way through Mykonos, in search of the latest labels and limited edition jewellery   to flaunt from their flawless bodies. I wondered how much longer I would be able to blend in. Little Venice is a classy, Cycladic cliché. This row of Italianate building mostly an amalgamation of romantic cocktail bars and restaurants satiating romancing couples is licked at by the lapping blue of the Aegean. Head here for that sunset-soaked table for two. Ticked behind is one of Greece’s most recognizable landmarks. Dominating the Kastro area is the snow –white Panagia Paraportiani. Mykonos’ oldest church this asymmetrical chapels blended into one, and is a magnet for even the most amateur of photographers. All seamlessly interlocked and facing different directions, its chapels were built between the 15 -17 th centuries under the protection of their iconic dome. Inside is a protected 500 year old silver iconostais.The blinding yellow sands of Mykonos ‘beaches attract a diverse blend of sojourning couples .all ready to share the common language of escapism. Arriving by caique boat at plndri (known famously as Super Paradise Beach) .sculpted dancer’s come into focus, grooving to hypnotic beats upon sandstone headlands. Meanwhile, at Psarou Beach celebrities recline on timber sun lounges beneath wicker umbrella as masseurs unknot their fame. In Kalaftis, the athletic head out to windsurf, fuelled by the warm Meltemi winds, whilst in Agios loannis, newlyweds chink glasses from their private rooftop spas. Beyond the buzz, one also becomes mesmerized by the landscape‘s quieter side. Within 75 square kilometers over 800 churches and charming chapels pepper the inhospitable terrain like wildflowers, one for almost every Mykonian family. Often with their doors opened onto flower-festooned courtyards, they silently display ornate religious icons and heirlooms. Mykonos is the island of multiple personalities. Sallow yourself to get lost in the frenzied beauty of its mesmerizing maze-like streets, and discover that here, you can be whoever you want to be.

Narva
One of the oldest towns in Estonia. Situated on the western banks of the River Narva, it was first mentioned in the chronicle of Novgorod. The Herman Castle is the oldest architectural monument and the city museum, which is situated in the castle, is well worth seeing.

Newcastle upon Tyne  is a city in the North East of England. It has a population of 250,000 but including the surrounding urban area its population is almost 1 million.

Newcastle is a lively and diverse city, known for its nightlife, art, music and sports. Compact, attractive and friendly, it is one of England's core cities and is a centre of culture, architecture and business. Newcastle is a starting point for tours of the Northumberland coast and Hadrian's Wall. The town is also home to the Geordie culture, with a rich heritage of folk music and dance and its own dialect.

Newcastle was founded around 2,000 years ago as a Roman fort called Pons Aelius along Hadrian's Wall, a ruin of which still exists at Segedunum, a short walk from Wallsend Metro station. The city developed into an important port and was at the centre of the Industrial Revolution during the 18th and 19th centuries. As heavy industry declined, Newcastle's fortunes took a dip. The city has now re-invented itself as a cultural centre and Science City, and is possibly one of the trendiest places in the UK.

Nice has a strong cultural heritage. Among its best attractions are the Opera House; the Chagall, Matisse and naval museums; and the fine-arts museum, with its Monet, Degas, Renoir and Rodin collections. Also the flower market and St. Reparate Cathedral in the old city, most of which is closed to cars. Stroll down the Promenade des Anglais along the (pebble) beach that passes some very old and exclusive hotels, such as the Hotel Negresco.
Old Town Nice has a surprisingly charming, small-town feel. You can shop for locally made olive oil and perfume, dine in one of dozens of top-rated restaurants or visit the antiques market in the Cours Saleya every Monday.
July and August on the French Riviera can be stifling, not only because of the intense heat but the crowds of tourists. June and September are the best months to be in the region, as both are free of the midsummer crowds and the weather is summer-balmy. Try to avoid the second half of July and all of August, when almost all of France goes on holidays. Huge crowds jam the roads and beaches, and prices are hiked up in resorts.
Off-season has its charms—the pétanque games are truly just the town folks' game, the most touristy hill towns are virtually abandoned, and when it's nice out, more often than not, you can bask in direct sun in the cafés.

Nowadays Novgorod connecting Moscow and Saint Petersburg, Novgorod enjoys of stable economy and well established cultural relations with both capitals, and also attracts foreign investors. Its geographical location causes that Novgorod is one of the cities prospered commercially establishing. As a cosmopolitan city of wealth, it also became an important education and cultural center, reaching its peak in the 18th century when it was considered one of the most prosperous trade centres in all of Europe.Construction, restoration and renovation have helped the city recapture some of its past grandeur. There are about two hundred of culture and art institutions in Nizhny Novgorod. Some of then are exhibit in one of the most ancient and richest museums of Russia. It museum offers to visitors a unique collection of historic, cultural and art relics, that gave grounds to UNESCO to include Nizhny Novgorod in the list of 100 cities of the world which are of great historical and cultural value.A visit to Novgorod usually leaves guests with unforgettable impressions of the inimitable and majestic Novgorod landscape which can be appreciated by making a boat tour of the Volga and Oka River. Modern Novgorod is a center of Russian domestic and international tourism that waits for your visit.Novgorod or Nizhni Novgorod, it is Russia's fourth largest city, is an exciting city to live. Unlike Moscow and St. Petersburg, with their large numbers of westerners, Nizhni Novgorod offers insights into life in Russia's heartland. This Old Russian city has a rich history of almost 1000 years and this give to the visitor a combination of old and new city that you can enjoy.

The city of Odense is the third largest city in Denmark. Odense city has a population of 167,615  and is the main city of the island of Funen. It is the seat of Odense Municipality with a population of 190,245 (as of 1 January 2011 (2011 -01-01)[update]) and was the seat of Odense County until 1970, and Funen County from 1970 until 1 January 2007, when the county became part of Region of Southern Denmark.

Odesa (also spelled Odessa) is a favourite destination in Ukraine, her warm waters, recreation complexes, beautiful sanatoriums, sunlit beaches, cultural traditions and fine architecture attracts thousands of visitors year round. Odesa has developed a huge tourist infrastructure; visitors can find restaurants, discos, nightclubs, hotels, theatres and more. The city has a Mediterranean architecture heavily influenced by French and Italian styles. Art Nouveau, Renaissance and Classicist styles are widely present. Most of the city's 19th century houses were built of limestone mined nearby.
Since Odesa has got a lot of theatres, museums, libraries and other educational establishments (such as a university, polytechnic and medical schools, a marine academy, and a music conservatory), the city is considered an important cultural centre in Ukraine.
Odesa is also the home of the largest market in Europe: Seventh-Kilometer Market.
Odesa has been always welcoming spirit; population is a mixture of lot of nationalities; nowadays there are more than 135 ethnic groups from all around the world living here. The mixture of cultures has given this City a very cosmopolitan spirit. People are very tolerant, friendly and simple. Odessites are known for their hospitality, warm-heartiness and use of humour in public. Some famous Odessites include the writer Isaac Babel, violinists David Oistrakh and Nathan Milstein, pianists Sviatoslav Richter, Benno Moiseiwitsch, and Emil Gilels, scientists Ilya Mechnikov Dmitri Mendeleev and Leonid Mandelstam.
Odesa can be reached by plane, train, bus, or ferries. The city has a well developed highway network; her International Airport and railway system offers favourable conditions in order to get the City. The transportation network around Odessa consists of trams, trolleybuses, buses and marshrutkas.
The principal industries here are shipbuilding, fishing, steelmaking, and food processing. Odesa host two big ports: Odesa itself and Yuzhny situated in the Odesa city’s suburbs, another important port, Illichivsk, is located to the south-west of Odesa City.
Odesa or Odessa is a beautiful city located in Southern Ukraine on the shores of the Black Sea northwest of Crimea; it is the administrative centre of the Odesa Oblast, the fifth-largest city in Ukraine and its more important trading city. Odesa limits with the countries of Moldova and Romania.
Although Ukrainian is the country’s only official language and many advertisements and signs are written in it, the vast majority of the population speaks Russian. In outlying areas, Ukrainian can also be heard, as well as Romanian near the Romanian border. English is the most used tourist language.
Odesa has a mild and dry climate; the city receives 350 mm of rain precipitation a year. The best time to visit Odesa is during summer when everything is in bloom.

Welcome to Oslo, the capital of Norway.
Oslo is home to museums and galleries, a royal palace, parks and public institutions, all of which are in walking distance apart
from centre.
The city enjoys an unsurpassed location. Within it's boundaries, it is possible to swim in Oslofjorden in summer and ski
on well-mantained ski trails in winter. Oslo as the capital of Norway belongs belongs to larger towns with plenty of department stores, shopping centres and markets. However, be aware that Norway is an expensive country and Oslo is the MOST expensive city in the world!
Opening hours
In most shops in Oslo the opening hours are weekdays 10-17, and Sat 09-15. Many shopping centres have extended opening hours from 10-21 on Mon-Fri and 10-18 on Sat. Most shops are closed on Sundays, but many souvenir shops are open. Thursday is generally the day for evening shopping. Shops, especially shopping centres and souvenir shops have extended opening hours until 19 or 21.
Shopping areas
If you don’t know what you’re looking for or if you’re into window-shopping, take a stroll in these areas:

Aker Brygge - the wharf next to City Hall. Expensive designer shops as well as regular shops, cafés, restaurants, theatres, cinema and bars.

Grønland - popularly called Little Pakistan. If you’re looking for cheap fabrics, fancy jewellery, spice, fruit and vegetable markets, this is where you want to be. From Oslo City, follow Steners gata and Grønlandsleiret, and within a few minutes you’re right in the middle of Grønland. Most of the stores are situated in the street Grønlandsleiret and Tøyengata.

Hegdehaugsveien, Bogstadveien and Majorstua - between the Royal Palace and the Vigeland Park lays one of the largest shopping districts in the city. Oslo is the city in the world with most designer labels relative to the population and most of them are situated in this area. Several posh little boutiques, where you should not enter with a backpack and smelly sandals, lay closely packed in Hegdehaugsveien and Bogstadveien.

Karl Johans gate - the most famous street in Oslo. Stretches from the Royal Palace to Oslo Central Station. Here you find hundreds of shops of all kinds and lots of street artists during summer. Cool your feet in the water fountain in Studenterlunden on sunny days.

Grünerløkka - the Greenwich Village of Oslo. Designer boutiques, small cafes, parks, need we say more? This part of town is certainly worth a visit. Walk from Use-It to the end of Møllergata, Brenneriveien, up Nordre gate to Markveien and Thorvald Meyers gate.

Experience Oxford travel with a walk down the long sweep of The High, one of the most striking streets in England; enjoy a mug of cider in one of the old student pubs; the sound of May Day dawn when choristers sing in Latin from Magdalen Tower; students in traditional gowns whizzing past on rickety bikes; towers and spires rising majestically; nude swimming at Parson's Pleasure; the roar of a cannon launching the bumping races; a tiny, dusty bookstall where you can pick up a valuable first edition – Oxford, the city of spires, home of one of the greatest universities in the world.
Romantic Oxford is still here, but to get to it, you have to experience the bustling and crowded city that is also Oxford.  Travel at any time of the year and you can enjoy a tour of the colleges, many of which represent a peak in England's architectural history, as well as Victorian contributions. The Oxford Tourist Information Centre offers guided walking tours daily throughout the year at this great destination. Oxford colleges like visiting Eton is much more restricted during term time (generally September to late March and late April to mid-July.
The busiest time in Oxford is in June and July with Henley’s Royal Regatta and Ascot's Royal Meeting. Most stately homes are open March through September or October only.  Winter is considered to be low season and the quietest for tourists although one can enjoy Oxford travel at any time of year.

Pärnu
About two hours’ drive from Tallinn is Pärnu, a small town situated on the banks of the Pärnu River where it emerges into the Gulf of Riga. Established in the 13th century, the town is known as a seaport and a health resort. Among its attractions are its theatre and its 3 km- (2 mile-) long sandy beach, which is very popular with Estonians.

Palma is located in the centre of Palma Bay, 13 meters over the sea level. Due to its location, it has an exceptional weather; it is sunny all year long. In summer, the highest temperature is 26°C while in winter the average temperature is around 16°C. For this reason, beaches are its major touristic attraction. It has more than 400 thousand inhabitants and the majority of them work in a field related to tourism.
As it was mentioned above, the beaches in Palma are a truly paradise. The ideal weather, the quiet and clear ocean as well as the beautiful landscapes make the perfect combination for its visitors. The beaches of the island are: Cala Estancia, Playa de Palma (it's the biggest one), Ciudad Jardín, Ca'n Pere Antoni and Cala Mayor. In all of them, there are businesses such as shops or restaurants, where you can buy and eat while you sunbathe.
But Palma does not only have beautiful beaches; it also has lots of places to see and visit, for example: Museums: The most popular ones are: Catedralicio Museum, Historico-Militar Castillo de San Carlos museum, Municipal de Historia Museum, Diocesà Museum, etc.
Churches: Catedral de Santa María de Palma de Mallorca (commonly known as La seu), Montesion, San Francisco, San Miguel, Santa Eulalia, etc. And important buildings that are part of the Palma's culture due to their significant meaning. Some of these most important and representative buildings are: The Baños Arabes, Consolat de la Mar, El Palacio de la Almudaina, La Lonja, La Plaza Mayor, El Pueblo Español, El Gran Hotel, El Castillo Bellver, etc.
Several festivals are celebrated during the year. During these celebrations, all the cultural backgrounds and traditions are shown in parties, concerts, parades, ceremonies, presentations, etc. These are only a few of the most important celebrations:

Paris, the city of light and its surroundings are some of the most visited areas. Paris is without a doubt one of the most beautiful cities on the planet. With so much to see and do, renting one of the many Paris apartments is the perfect way to enjoy the city. Having the time to enjoy this fantastic location like a true Parisian is an unforgettable experience. The West of France is facing towards the Atlantic Coast. In the north Normandy & Brittany have rolling hills, sandy beaches and quiet little harbour towns. Normandy & Brittany have a more rugged coast and many neolithic sites. It has quite a distinct atmosphere from the rest of the country; you can still sense the Celtic origin of the region in its inhabitants. The eastern part of France consists of the Alsace, Lorraine, Franche Comté and Burgundy regions. The landscape has rolling hills and many beautiful cities, such as Metz, Strasbourg, Nancy and Dijon. This region produces many famous wines, including magnificent pinot noirs and chardonnays valued the world over, as well as the famous "Yellow wine" from the Jura mountain vineyard.
The Centre of France is in many ways the most quietest part of France. But the great treasure of this region is the Loire valley , with many great castles and beautiful towns. Chartres with its famous cathedral and Tours rates among the most beautiful French cities. The Alps are great for skiing in winter and hiking in summer. Albertville, Grenoble and Chamonix have all hosted the Olympic games. But the Alps also have nice towns to visit, such as Chambéry, Annecy or Grenoble . The South with its lovely nature, good food, Roman ruins and of course the Riviera which draws a lot of visitors every year. Towns like Orange, and Arles but also big cities like Marseille and Toulon are must sees. The Provence is dotted with pleasant small villages. In the South west of France the Dordogne is one of the most quintessential French regions. The valley is so pretty, the towns are so quaint and the food is so good, that it is hard to believe that the people who live here go somewhere else for their holidays. The Languedoc has its own language and culture. In the south of the Languedoc you find the Pyrenees, a great mountain range separating France from Spain, where you can hike and ski. The towns of Toulouse and Montpellier are nice and the medieval town of Carcassone is a top destination

Peaceful Paxos. The 14 kilometre transfer on an unpacked hydrofoil from neighboring Corfu slices through the glassy-blue lonian, the silken broken only by the hiss of sunrise. Upon arrival in Gaios, a rainbow of fishing boats bob cheek-to –cheek with millionaire flotillas that line the waking waterfront. Wealthy couples breakfast on outdoor decks beneath their resting sails, as camera-happy tourist snap with friendly envy. At Capriccio Café Creperie, eyes bigger than bellies clock the variety of delicious crepes being made before them: it’s a difficult decision. The Italianate harbor-side capital of Gaios. is also the centre stage for regular local food and music festivals where Greek hospitality still performs at its best. One quickly becomes enchanted by Paxos. One of the shiest of the lonian group, it remains largely untouched by mass tourism. With a population of only 2600,Paxos is never overcrowded-that is if you’re not counting its 300,000 olive trees. Fragrant and lush, this tiny 19 square –kilometer is simple, picturesque and pure, imbued with the reap beauty of fertile countryside and striking waters. And Lakka Bay has it all. Lakka’s inviting sand-bottomed harbor, in the island’s north, is the image of an escapist’s recurring daydream. Sunglasses struggle to filter the iridescent of this protective horseshoe bay, with colors that defy description. Olive and cypress trees rest atop vertical cliffs that flank sheltered waters as sailboats simmer around snorkelers who voyage hand – in –hand.Loggs is Paxos traditional fishing village, where restaurant pull the fish straight from harbor nets to order. Elegantly quaint and pretty. oggos is a Monet brought to Hellenic life. The sleepy hamlet is the perfect place to find paxos most secluded cove, reached by snaking footpaths from the harbor, or by hiring a boat. Halfway down the island’s spine brews Bournaos Kafenion at Magazia. For over half a century, this tiny café has been the pulse of Paxiot life. Kostas preserves the Greek tradition of holding tavli(backgammon) and chess competitions for those who enjoy traditional briki-brewed coffee. Don’t forget your sweet tooth, you’ll not be allowed to leave before trying Kosta’s traditional spoon sweets”figs, apricaots, apples and cherries coated in syrup. Stepping into the isolated heart of Paxos verdant countryside has you weaving your way through terraced olive groves, segregated by a maze of stone walls and hairpin bends. A lesser –known route to the awesome Tripitos Rock Arch (most discover by boat), is to follow the goat trails, where distant bells echo across the dense wilderness of silver-leafed olive groves. When Tripitos Rock Arch finally upsurges from the ocean on the south – west of the island, it seems as if the magnificent setting has been lifted directly from an airbrushed travel brochure. Further north is Paxos’ secret sunset spot. By day, boats anchor near the stack, arches and sea grottoes where the rugged 1`50 meter-high Erimitis cliffs, nosedives into the royal blue waters. By night, those looking for intimacy watch the sun’s rays make their burnt-orange descent across the Eremitis cliffs as the lonian swallows its glowing bait.

Prague is a huge city with several district articles containing sightseeing, restaurant, nightlife and accommodation listings — consider printing them all.
Prague (Czech: Praha)  is the capital city and largest city of the Czech Republic. It is one of the larger cities of Central Europe and has served as the capital of the historic region of Bohemia for centuries.

Confusingly, several incompatible district systems are used in Prague. Partially, different systems are from different historic periods, but at least three different systems are used today for different purposes. To make things even worse, a single district name can be used in all the systems, but with different meanings.

For purposes of this guide, the "old" district system is used. In this "old" system, Prague is divided into ten numbered districts: Praha 1 through to Praha 10. If you encounter a higher district number, a different system is being used. For example, Praha 13 is part of the "old" Praha 5 district. The advantage of the "old" system of ten districts is that it is used on street signs and house numbers throughout the city, so you can always easily determine the "old" system district you are located in.

Praha 1 is the oldest part of the city, the original 'Town of Prague', and has by far the densest number of attractions. Praha 2 also contains important historic areas. In this central area, the "old" district system (or any of the newer systems) is too crude to be practical, a finer division is needed. Traditional city "quarters" provide such a division. Their disadvantage is that they are somewhat incompatible with the modern district systems - although "quarters" are smaller than the "old" system districts, a single quarter can belong to two or even more districts. The advantage is that these central quarters are well known and widely used and identical with the homonymous cadastral areas shown on on street and house number signs along the "old" district designation, allowing easy orientation.

Buildings in big cities in Czech Republic have two numbers, one blue and one red. The blue ones are the orientation numbers - it is the ordinal number of the building on its street. Historicaly these numbers always started from the end of the street which is closer to a river. As is normal in Europe, odd numbers belong on one side of the street and even numbers on the other. This allows you to find quickly the house you are looking for. The red numbers are related to the house register of the entire quarter (for example, Staré Mesto), and thus usually correspond to the order the buildings in that district were constructed. Most people do not remember them; if somebody says e.g. the house is in Dlouha str. number 8, they will usually mean the blue number. Red numbers usually have 3 or more digits.

View over Prague (Castle on the left)Castle (Hradcany)— The historic nexus of the city, and the highest point on the left bank. Mostly belongs to Praha 1, although a small part belongs to Praha 6.
Lesser Town (Malá strana)— The settlement around the castle; location of most governmental authorities, including Czech Parliament. Mostly belongs to Praha 1, although a very small part belongs to Praha 5.
Old Town (Staré mesto)— The nucleus of the right bank, the oldest part of Prague. The whole Old Town belongs to Praha 1.
Jewish Town (Josefov)— A small enclave within Old Town, the old Jewish ghetto. The whole Jewish Town belongs to Praha 1.
New Town (Nové mesto)— The district adjacent to Old Town, established in the 14th century. Large parts of the New Town belongs both to Praha 1 and Praha 2. A small part belongs to Praha 8.
Vysehrad (Vyšehrad)— The site of the old Vyšehrad castle south of the medieval Prague. The whole Vyšehrad belongs to Praha 2.

Charles bridge
Rotunda at VysehradNorth - Praha 7, Praha 8 and Praha 9. Praha 7: The large river peninsula just north of the city center. Includes the districts of Letná, Holešovice, Bubny, Bubenec, Troja as well as a small part of Liben. Praha 8: Karlin is the small strip of land sandwiched between Zizkov and the river and bordering the old town on the west side. Karlin belongs to Prague 8 and prior to 2002, it was a rather unsavory part of the city. After the flood of 2002, Karlin was revitalised and is fast becoming a somewhat conservative, cosmopolitan, professional-class area. On the north-east side, Prague 8 balloons out and encompasses urban areas, business premises and furniture/homeware shopping districts. This is generally not regarded as a tourist area.
East - Praha 3, Praha 10, Praha 14 and Praha 15. Žižkov is the name of the district referred to as Prague 3. Previously a working class suburb, Žižkov is home to many expats, short term travelers and university students; and sits on a hill on the right side of the old town. The plentiful array of intriguing and often unusual bars and restaurants, combined with a small but dedicated culture of poets, artists and musicians, gives the area its reputation for being both fun, relaxed and alternative. It is considered one of the more Bohemian districts of Prague.
South - Praha 2, Praha 4, Praha 11 and Praha 12. A large part of Praha 2 is divided between historic quarters of New Town and Vysehrad described in individual articles. The remaining part includes most of Vinohrady. Praha 4 is the biggest and most modern district in Prague.
West - Praha 5, Praha 6 and Praha 13.  

A university student, Jan Palach became a Czechoslovakian martyr when he set himself ablaze in protest to the Warsaw Pact intervention against the Prague Spring reforms, which liberalised government policies and human rights restrictions. Palach died three days later from his injuries. Palach's funeral erupted into mass protests against the government. Many Czechoslovakians mourned Palach and sympathized with his ideals including Jan Zajíc, who killed himself in the same fashion as Palach to encourage his countrymen to fight the Warsaw Pact occupation of the Czechoslovakian nation. A little more than two months later, on Good Friday, Evžen Plocek also set himself ablaze in the town of Jihlava. However, Plocek's protest went largely unnoticed since his death was not reported by the media. In 1989, twenty years after Palach's death, large scale protests were held in what became known as Palach Week, a precursor to the Velvet Revolution later the same year.

This magical city of bridges, cathedrals, gold-tipped towers and church domes, has been mirrored in the surface of the swan-filled Vltava River for more than ten centuries. Almost undamaged by WWII, Prague's compact medieval centre remains a wonderful mixture of cobbled lanes, walled courtyards, cathedrals and countless church spires all in the shadow of her majestic 9th century castle that looks eastward as the sun sets behind her. Prague is also a modern and vibrant city full of energy, music, cultural art, fine dining and special events catering to the independent traveller's thirst for adventure.

It is regarded by many as one of Europe's most charming and beautiful cities, Prague has become the most popular travel destination in Central Europe along with Budapest and Krakow. Millions of tourists visit the city every year.

Prague was founded in the later 9th century, and soon became the seat of Bohemian kings, some of whom ruled as emperors of the Holy Roman Empire. The city thrived under the rule of Charles IV, who ordered the building of the New Town in the 14th century - many of the city's most important attractions date back to that age. The city also went under Habsburg rule and became the capital of a province of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In 1918, after World War I, the city became the capital of Czechoslovakia. After 1989 many foreigners, especially young people, moved to Prague. In 1992, its historic centre was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. In 1993, Czechoslovakia split into two countries and Prague became capital city of the new Czech Republic.

The east bank of the Vltava riverThe Vltava River runs through Prague, which is home to about 1.2 million people. The capital may be beautiful, but pollution often hovers over the city due to its location in the Vltava River basin.

Many Praguers have a small cottage (which can range from a shack barely large enough for garden utensils to an elaborate, multi-story dwelling) outside the city. There they can escape for some fresh air and country pursuits such as mushroom hunting and gardening. These cottages, called chata (plural form chaty, pronounciation of ch as in Bach), are treasured both as getaways and ongoing projects. Each reflects its owners' character, as most of them were built by unorthodox methods. There were no Home Depots under communism. Chata owners used the typically Czech "it's who you know" chain of supply to scrounge materials and services. This barter system worked extremely well, and still does today. Chaty are also sometimes used as primary residences by Czechs who rent out their city-centre apartments for enormous profit to foreigners who can afford to pay inflated rent.

Provence travel has stirred the imagination and stimulated the senses more strongly than any other region of France. The soft light and its vivid landscape of pastel colours have inspired writers and artists from F. Scott
Fitzgerald and Pagnol to Van Gogh, Monet and Picasso to travel to Provence. The fragrant countryside of Provence redolent with wild herbs is scattered with historic fortified medieval towns such as Avignon and Aix-en-Provence and the ancient Roman towns like Orange and Arles with their great monuments, arches and coliseums. On the coast is the great port of Marseille, a melting pot of cultures so in contrast to the traditional social landscape of most French provincial towns.
As a destination, elegant Aix-en-Provence has museums, fountains, and the gracious Cours Mirabeau Boulevard. Charming and laid-back Arles and crowded Avignon have bewitched Roman legionnaires, popes, and Vincent van Gogh.  But Provence travel works its charms most potently in rural places, aided in no small part by cypress trees, vineyards, and a cooling glass of pastis.
May and June are the best times for Provence travel, followed by September and October. Lavender fields blaze purple for two or three weeks any time between late June and mid-July. In September vines sag with plump red grapes. The Provence vendange (grape harvest) starts around 15 September, followed by the cueillette des olives (olive harvest) from 15 November through to early January. If you ski, late December to March is for you

Reykjavik Attractions - Things to do
1. Hallgrimskirkja
Skólavörðustígur
What is it? The landmark church, the tallest building in Iceland, dominates the city from its highest point, and is visible on a sunny day from up to 10 miles (16km) away. Named for 17th century Icelandic poet, hymn composer and clergyman, Hallrimur Petursson, the church's unusual design represents volcanic basalt columns flanking its towering steeple. It took nearly 40 years to build the edifice, which was finally completed in 1986. In front of the church stands a statue of Leif Eriksson, donated to Iceland by the United States. Hours of Operation: 9am to 6pm in summer, 9am to 5pm winter Phone:
2. National Museum
Suðurgötu 41
www.natmus.is     What is it? The recently refurbished National Museum of Iceland is the best place to become acquainted with the folklore, history and culture of this fascinating nation. The museum contains around 3,000 artefacts, including medieval settlers' tools, agricultural and nautical implements, ancient carvings and Viking relics. Hours of Operation: Tuesday to Sunday 11am to 5pm (16 September to 30 April); daily 10am to 5pm (May to 15 September) Phone:530 2200
3. Botanical Gardens
Laugardalur 104
What is it? The lush, green Botanical Gardens are a haven for strollers and planted with a large collection of Icelandic indigenous plants. Besides walking trails and water features, the gardens have a greenhouse café open during the summer months, a children's park and a zoo. Hours of Operation: Phone:553 8870
4. The Einar Jónsson Museum
Eiriksgata
www.skulptur.is     What is it? Einar Jónsson was Iceland's foremost sculptor and he himself designed and established this museum, which contains several hundred of his works spanning his 60-year career. The museum building itself is deemed to be Jónsson's largest work, and served as his home, gallery and studio. The foundation stone was laid in 1916; it was Iceland's first art museum and retains pride of place on the highest point in Reykjavik. It is adjoined by a pristine treed sculpture garden, which sports 26 bronze casts of the artist's work. There is also a museum shop selling plaster casts of Jonsson's works, books and postcards. Hours of Operation: Tuesday to Sunday 2pm to 5pm (June to 15 September); Saturday and Sunday 2pm to 5pm (16 September to 31 May). Closed in December and January Phone:551 3797, or 561 3797
5. The Blue Lagoon

What is it? A favourite and unique attraction close to Reykjavik, about 30 miles (50km) south west of the city, is the man-made geothermal 'Blue Lagoon', set in a lava field, filled with mineral-rich hot water pumped from about a mile below the surface. The lagoon is flanked by a luxurious health spa where visitors come to be pampered and treated for skin ailments like eczema and psoriasis. The lagoon's unearthly phosphorescent aquamarine colour is caused by the therapeutic ecosystem of algae, silica and minerals in the water. Hours of Operation: Open daily 9am to 9pm in summer, and 10am to 8pm in winter Phone:420 8800
6. Gullfoss Falls
What is it? Iceland's famed Gullfoss (Golden) Falls are considered to rate among the most beautiful in the world and make for a popular day trip from Reykjavik. The falls, with their awesome double-cascade, are incredibly powerful which has meant they have come under threat of being utilised as a source of hydro-electricity. Currently, however, the fantastic vista of the falls, shrouded in mist and rainbows, gushing into a canyon on the Hvita River, are safely ensconced in a national park and remain one of the country's top tourist attractions. Hours of Operation: Phone:
7. Geysir
What is it? The weird landscape of the Haukadalur valley in Iceland's southern lowlands, where hot springs spout and mud pots bubble, has been dominated for centuries by the 'granddaddy' of all geysers, the Great Geysir, from which all other such phenomena around the world have gained their name. The Geysir, once shooting boiling water hundreds of feet into the air, has reduced its performance levels somewhat in modern times, but is nevertheless still an impressive sight when it occasionally erupts. The rest of the thermal area, bathed in a sulphuric smell, is just as fascinating, featuring several other spouting vents and geysers which frequently display their prowess. The Geysir area has become a great tourist attraction and a centre has been opened containing a multi-media geology museum and folklore exhibits. There is also a hotel, souvenir shop and restaurant on site. Hours of Operation: Phone:
8. Thingvellir
What is it? The national park of Thingvellir, 30 miles (50km) east of Reykjavik, is not only Iceland's most important historic site, but also a place of natural and geological wonder. It was here that the world's first ever parliament, the Alting, first convened in AD930, and where Christianity was first introduced to Iceland. Even today people gather at Thingvellir to celebrate any major national event. Geologically this is the only site in the world where the American and European tectonic plates are visible; there is also the largest lake in Iceland, and stunning scenery including a lava gorge, the Oxararfoss waterfall, and the 'Money Chasm' filled with spring water where visitors drop coins into the water to witness the strange distorted reflections that result.

Historically, Rhodes was known for its Colossus of Rhodes, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, which was unfortunately damaged. Today, Rhodes is often called The Pearl of the Mediterranean and is known for its natural beauty, historical, and archaeological treasures. The environment is mountainous and green with pine trees, and there are beautiful beaches.Rhodes is a important tourist attraction for the seekers of sunny beaches. While many of its beaches are gravel , not sand; the island can pride yourself 300+ sun days in a year. Tourism cooperate a large part in the island's economy. And estimated 80% of the island's revenue results from tourism. Consequently, you will find into tourists and hotels and beaches full of deck chairs for rent, into shops and restaurants that provide to these tourists. It can be overwhelming at times. If this bothers you, Rhodes is probably not for you. Still, there are some areas where mass tourism has not yet penetrated too much. And there are benefits, too: Travel to and accommodation on Rhodes itself can be purchased for relatively low prices, and most of the locals speak at least English and German and often some other languages.Rhodes is the greatest of the Dodecanese islands and it is among the most visited of the Greek islands with a population of about 98.000 inhabitants. It is the third largest Greek island and, officially, the sunniest place in the Europe. It lies approximately 11 miles (18 km) west of Turkey, situated between the Greek mainland and the island of Cyprus. The island is famous for its sun, sea and sand: the ideal place for vacations.

Riga - Latvia's striking capital city, is a captivating place both to travel to and live in. Even before Latvia's accession to the European Union in 2004, Riga had proven itself as a popular tourist destination, and the number of tourists have only been increasing since 2004. Riga Life is the city's leading English-language portal for Riga, with over three hundred pages of useful information about everything in the city, from cosy cafes, hip bars and fancy restaurants through to reviews and photos of the best Riga hotels and apartments if you need help in choosing or booking your accommodation. Thanks to our IT whizzkids we can even show you the exact location of all the above on our fantastic online Riga map!

As well as presenting you all of Riga's hottest hangouts (and their whereabouts), we endeavour to keep our readers' fingers firmly on the city's pulse, with the latest breaking news, from Riga and Latvia, from the latest in Latvian politics to news from the world of culture, an up-to-the-minute calendar of events with listings of festivals, exhibitions, parties and concerts, and the latest tricks that Mother Nature is pulling on our weather page. We also provide you the chance to talk to Riga residents and ask them tricky questions on our forum.

Of course tourists arriving in Riga Latvia for the first time will want to explore the many legendary attractions this capital has to offer, and we've prepared feature length articles on all the city's major glories. From the beautiful ancient Old Town, with a range of museums and cultural institutions, to the amazing Art Nouveau part of the Central District, we've got you covered!

Here at Riga Life we've aimed to create a website that is easy-to-use, at times irreverent, but always accurate, and we always welcome your comments and suggestions. Just contact us and let us know how we can improve - or even just an encouraging word if you have found the site useful. Many already have, and we appreciate their comments.

That's pretty much it from Riga, Latvia's stunning capital - we hope this site helps you get as much pleasure from the city as we have! Don't forget to print your downloadable PDF guide to Riga before you set off! Meanwhile check out the links on the left, top, and right hand side of the page for everything you could possibly need to know about Riga and life in Latvia - and if you can't find anything just give us a shout.

Paris has the Eiffel Tower, Brussels has the Atomium and Rotterdam has the Euromast. Architect Maaskant designed the Euromast in 1960 on the occasion of the Floriade, the world horticultural expo. It’s still one of Rotterdam’s main features and icons.
Building the Euromast
The tower was 'only' 100 meters high at the time. Eight years later the medical faculty topped it by 14 meters. It was decided to increase the height of the Euromast by 85 meters by building the Space Tower, which was finished in 1970.
Adventure and Romance in Rotterdam
Prepare for an adventure when you visit the Euromast. Take the super-fast automatic lifts to the platforms and enjoy the view from which you can see as far as The Hague and Antwerp (Belgium) on a clear day. Then it’s time to start abseiling back down! Do make reservations well in advance, because the abseiling adventure is very popular.
Those who are  in a more romantic mood can also dine at the top of the tower, sleep in one of the suites and wake up with the spectacular view.

Encircled by mountains and straddling the river of Salzach, the beautiful Austrian city of Salzburg has a dramatic setting that matches its own baroque splendour.

With its Alpine surroundings and UNESCO World Heritage historic centre - complete with cobbled streets, narrow alleyways, elegant squares and fabulous architecture - Salzburg really is just as lovely as the city portrayed in The Sound of Music.

Being the birthplace of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Salzburg has developed an incredibly rich musical life that would no doubt have made the great composer proud. The Salzburg Festival is considered one of the most important musical festivals in the world, and there are plenty of other festivals in the city. Salzburg puts on some 4,000 cultural events (most of them musical) every year.

And the city mixes high-brow and low-brow with ease. While an air of cosmopolitan sophistication hangs over the elegant shops, restaurants, lanes and squares of the Old Town, an altogether different, but just as interesting culture is encountered in the many Bierstuben selling locally brewed beer.

Fantastic is a word often used in describing the Greek islands but it must surely apply more than most to Santorini. An island of extraordinary contrasts, it can be both incredibly beautiful and deeply unattractive. The white cube houses and blue domed churches may fall over nicely down the cliff side in the capital Thira but its streets are heavily developed with costly cafes, fashionable shops, and near nightmare groups of visitors. Santorini has an extremely well-developed tourism infrastructure, featuring visitors a very wide selection of accommodation, such as Santorini hotels, studios, apartments, traditional houses, suites, villas and rooms for rent. The narrow pathways of the island are lined with designer boutiques, jewelry and craft shops that sell high quality goods. Santorini travel agents, tour operators, and car rental agencies can be found almost anywhere on the island, offering their know-how and travel services to make your holiday extraordinary.Santorini is definitely one of the most strongly beautiful and spectacular spots on planet. This incredible scenery attracts thousands of visitors annually. The term 'Santorini' originates from 'Santa Irini', though it is formally known as Thera or Thira which is notorious for the enormous volcanic explosion which destroyed the settlements thereon, and created the current geological caldera. It is the southernmost member of the Cyclades group of islands, located between Ios and Anafi islands, with an area of about 73 km² (28 mi²), and in 2001 had an estimated population of 13,600. Its fantastic natural beauty along with its eminent nightlife makes the island one of Europe's top tourist hot spots.
Because of the spectacular and unique natural beauty of Santorini, several Greek singers have chosen the island, as the setting of their videos. Greek and a Brazial TV series have been view of Santorini, in addition to some Holywood movies (eg. Tomb Rider II). Generally Santorini is a extreme of attractiveness for Greek and international celebrities.

SENSUOUS SANTORINI. No superlatives sufficiently grasp Santorini’s uniqness.It's startling, mystifying and surreal landscape draws scores of neck –bent visitors who sail into its glittering caldera every year. Lava crusted cliffs dramatically explode upwards, a timeless natural sculpture caused by repeated volcanic explosions. Indeed this once round island has been ravaged by several igneous reuptions, most recently in 1956 when over 2000 homes tumbled into the Aegean. But it was the cataclysmic event of 1650 BC that shattered Santori so ferociously, disgorging billions of tones magma from the island‘s heart up into the skies. The awesomely, red beaches, cobalt caldera and offshore isles remain frozen in time. Reached by cable car or donkey. Santorini’s cliff top villages are scattering of pint-sized cave houses with barrel-vaulted ceilings, press-studded unrealistically to the perpendicular caldera walls. As if dusted with icing sugar by a giant’s hand, they scream out to starry-eyed couples seeking an intimate hideaway. The pedestrian’s lanes of Fixate Island’s capital are frequented by those who know their precious metals and stones. The exquisite gold quarter, particularly on Ipapantis Street, offers a glitzy (wallet-stripping) experience for after –hour’s wanderings. Lit like a stage-show, jewelley stores view for attention with handmade 18 carat gold archaic designs. Gold lovers also delight in viewing the 17th century BC gold ibex, now in the safe harness of the nearby Museum of Prehistoric Thera. Astonishingly ,this figurine remained buried in a box beneath millennia of lave, and was excavated in impeccable condition from the Mioan city of Akrotiri in 1999.Pompei-like Akrotiri,in the island’s south, was established during the early 3rd millennium BC. Since 1967, it has been (and continues to be) slowly excavated, unearthing multistorey buildings elaborate frescos and ceramic storage jars containing traces of olive oil and onions. Prosperous ancient Akrotiri reveals a sophisticated society that enjoyed indoor lavatories and underground aqueducts, unheard of for thousand of years thereafter. The site was under repair after the tragic roof collapse in2011. One of the most sensory experiences Santorini offers is sail across its caldera to the volcanic inlet of Nea Kameni. Board the Bella Auroro, the island’s 18th – century replica schooner, and arrive a lime green sulphurous bay. Climb up to the volcanically active crater to see its steam and smell its sulphur as its heat penetrates your (thick) shoes. You’ll then deserve to detox in the nearby hot springs before dining on traditional mezes and local wines back on the yacht. If that’s got the romantic instinct stirred, you can even get married on-board. From the crusted rim of Satorini’s caldera is the most iconic sunset-viewing spot in the Greek Island-perhaps the world. Walking for sunset-hour from Imerovigil (the caldera’s highest town) to Oia’s amphitheatrically setting is emotive. Find a craggy rampart to snuggle up on to absorb Santorini’s elemental beauty. The spectacles leave you jaw-gaped as the sinking sun descends to its flame-grilled close. And forgive the sceptics who insist you can’t hear the sun sizzle as it succumbs to the horizon’s hungry hotplate –they haven’t been to Santorini.

Seville is one of the most beautiful cities in Spain. It is considered as the historic, financial, artistic and cultural capital of southern Spain. It is also the capital of the province of Seville and of the Autonomous community of Andalusia. It is located on the Plain of the Guadalquivir River. The City of Seville has around 750,000 inhabitants since 2010, so it is the fourth largest city in all Spain, and its metropolitan area has around 1,500,000 inhabitants since 2010. The inhabitants of Seville are known as Sevillanos (Sevillanas to women), or Hispalences due to Romans called the city as Hispalis.
Seville has a fascinating history, because this city played an important role in commerce between the Americas and Spain in the past and it is more than 2,000 years old. Seville has gone through many stages, Moorish Era, Castilian Rule, the Golden Age and Civil War. The greatest time was during the discovery and conquest of America, and it had a period of artistic splendor in the 17th century. Sculptors such as Martinez Montañes, and painters such as Murillo, Valdes Leal and Velazquez were born in Seville.
Seville has several important and attractive buildings, monuments and parks, such as the Cathedral, the Alcazar, the University, the Torre de Oro, the Plaza de España, the Town Hall, the Metropol Parasol, the Palace of San Telmo, the Museum of Fine Arts of Seville, the Museum of Arts and Traditions, the Archaeological Museum, Naval Museum, Carriages Museum, Parque de Maria Luisa, the Gardens of Murillo and the Gardens of Catalina de Ribera.
Despite all monuments, museums and beautiful places, Seville is famous for being a joyous town. Seville itself is striking for its vitality and Sevillians are known for their sparkle and wit. Sevillan people has many important holidays such as the famous Semana Santa that is one of the most traditional holidays in all Spain, it boasts a large number of people in processions that consists of reenact scenes from the Christ's Passion; and the annual Feria de Abril, a long party-week of dance, drink and food, you can see beautiful and fine horses, and women dancing with brightly colored dresses.
If you are thinking to travel to Seville, you shouldn’t forget to taste the Tapas, one of the most famous dishes of Spain, and it is considered as one of its main cultural attractions. This city is a gastronomic center; its cuisine is based on olive oil, sea food, and sherry. You can find several typical sweet cakes such as tortas de aceite, pestiños, torrijas, roscos fritos, yemas de San Leandro, and mantecados. There are a large number of bars where you can find all kinds of dishes and cakes

Sofia is the capital and largest cityof Bulgaria and the 12th largest city by population in the European Union with a population of 1.27 million people. It is located in western Bulgaria, at the foot of Mount Vitosha and is ranked as a Beta- world city.
Prehistoric settlements were excavated in the centre of the present city, near the royal palace, as well as in outer districts such as Slatina and Obelya. The well-preserved town walls (especially their substructures) from antiquity date back before the 7th century BC, when Thracians established their city next to the most important and highly respected mineral spring, still functioning today. Sofia has had several names in the different periods of its existence, and remnants from the city's past can still be seen today alongside modern landmarks.
Many of the major universities, institutions, and businesses of Bulgaria are concentrated in Sofia. It is also a center of media, cultural events, modern theaters, it is a home of research institutes, sporting events, orchestras, and museums. IT industry sector is gradually growing in Sofia, together with the increasing number of events in contemporary arts, festivals, etc.
Sofia houses numerous museums, notably the National Historical Museum, the Bulgarian Natural History Museum, the Museum of Earth and Men, the Ethnographic Museum, the National Museum of Military History, the National Polytechnical Museum and the National Archaeological Museum. In addition, there are the Sofia City Art Gallery, the Bulgarian National Gallery of Arts, the Bulgarian National Gallery for Foreign Art as well as numerous private art galleries.
Sofia has an extensive nightlife scene with many night clubs, live venues, pubs, mehani (Bulgarian traditional taverns), and restaurants. The city has played host to many world-famous musical acts including Elton John, Madonna, George Michael, Tiesto, Lenny Kravitz, Kiss, Kylie Minogue, Depeche Mode, Rammstein, Metallica, Megadeth, Slayer, Anthrax, Judas Priest, Rihanna, Iron Maiden, AC/DC, Marillion, Scorpions, Duran Duran, Simply Red, Enrique Iglesias, Roxette, Kelly Rowland, Sting and many more.
The city offers many places of special interest such as the Sts. Cyril and Methodius National Library (which houses the largest national book collection and is Bulgaria's oldest cultural institute), the British Council, the Russian Cultural Institute, the Polish Cultural Institute, the Hungarian Institute, the Czech and the Slovak Cultural Institutes, the Italian Cultural Institute, the French Cultural Institute, Goethe Institut, Instituto Cervantes, and the Open Society Institute. The city is also known for the Boyana Church, which is a UNESCO world heritage site.
In addition, Sofia houses the Sofia Zoological Garden, which was founded in 1888.
Several international film productions were made here. Vitosha Boulevard, also called Vitoshka — ranked as the world's 22nd most expensive commercial street — represents numerous fashion boutiques and luxury goods stores and features exhibitions by world fashion designers. Sofia's geographic location, situated in the foothills of the weekend retreat Vitosha mountain, further adds to the city's specific atmosphere.
With its developing infrastructure and strategic location, Sofia is an important centre for international railway and automobile routes. Three Trans-European Transport Corridors cross the city: 4, 8 and 10. All major types of transport (except water transport) are represented in the city. It is home to eight railway stations,[24] the biggest of which is the Central Railway Station. Just next to it is the new Central Bus Station, the biggest and most modern of its kind in the country.[25] A number of other Bus Stations allow interurban and international trips from different parts of the city. The Sofia Airport with its new second terminal, finished in 2006, [26] handled some 2.7 million passengers in 2007.
Public transport is well-developed with bus, tram (153,6 km network[24]) and trolleybus (97 km network[24]) lines running in all areas of the city, although some vehicles are in a poor condition. The Sofia underground became operational from 1998 and is yet largely underdeveloped with one line and only 14 stations. Several new stations have been opened in 2009. Another, second line is being built with a targeted completion date in 2012. [30] The masterplan for the Sofia underground includes three lines with a total of 47 stations.[30] In recent years the marshrutka, a private passenger van, began serving fixed routes and proved an efficient and popular means of transport by being faster than public transport but cheaper than taxis. As of 2005 these vans numbered 368 and serviced 48 lines around the city and suburbs. There are some 6,000 licensed taxi cabs operating in the city and another 2,000 operating somewhat illegally. Low fares in comparison with other European countries, make taxis affordable and popular among a big part of the city population.
A number of ancient Roman, Byzantine and medieval Bulgarian buildings have been preserved in the city and its outskirts. Most notably, the 10th century Boyana Church (one of the UNESCO World Heritage protected sites), the Church of St. George, considered the oldest building in Sofia, and the early Byzantine Church of St Sophia.
A medieval monument of significant interest is the Church of St Petka of the Saddlers located in the very centre of the city providing a sharp contrast to the surrounding three Socialist Classicism edifices of the former Party House, TZUM, and Sheraton Sofia Hotel Balkan.
After the Liberation of Bulgaria from Ottoman rule in 1878 and the establishment of an autonomous Bulgarian monarchy with its capital in Sofia, Knyaz Alexander Battenberg invited architects from Austria-Hungary to shape the new capital's architectural appearance.
Among the architects invited to work in Bulgaria were Friedrich Grünanger, Adolf Václav Kolá?, Viktor Rumpelmayer and others, who designed the most important public buildings needed by the newly-reestablished Bulgarian government, as well as numerous houses for the country's elite.[33] Later, many foreign-educated Bulgarian architects also contributed.
The architecture of Sofia's centre is thus a combination of Neo-Baroque, Neo-Rococo, Neo-Renaissance and Neoclassicism, with the Vienna Secession also later playing an important part, but it is mostly typically Central European.
Among the most important buildings constructed in Sofia in the period are the former royal palace, today housing the National Art Gallery and the National Ethnographic Museum (1882); the Ivan Vazov National Theatre (1907); the former royal printing office, today the National Gallery for Foreign Art; the National Assembly of Bulgaria (1886), the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (1893), etc.
After the Second World War and the establishment of a Communist government in Bulgaria in 1944, the architectural line was substantially altered. Socialist Classicism public buildings emerged in the centre, but as the city grew outwards, the new neighbourhoods were dominated by many concrete tower blocks, prefabricated panel apartment buildings (panelki) and examples of Brutalist architecture.
After the abolishment of Communism in 1989, Sofia has witnessed the construction of whole business districts and neighbourhoods, as well as modern skryscraper-like glass-fronted office buildings, but also top-class residential neighbourhoods. Capital Fort Business Center will be the first skyscraper in Bulgaria with its 126 m and 36 floors.
The capital's main attraction is probably the ample opportunity provided to Sofianites for making use of the city's sprawling parklands, many of which are densely forested. There are four such major parks - Tsar Boris's Garden in the city centre, as well as the Southern, Western and Northern and several other smaller parks, most notable of which are the City Garden and the Doctor Garden. The Vitosha Nature Park (the oldest national park in the Balkans [45]), which includes a big part of the Vitosha mountain to the south of Sofia, covers an area of almost 270 km² and lies entirely within the city limits.[46] Many Sofianites take weekly hikes up the mountain, and most do so at least a couple of times a year. There are bungalows as well as several ski slopes on Vitosha, allowing locals to take full advantage of the countryside and of the mountains without having to leave the city.
The Pancharevo lake area is a popular destination due to its scenery, historical heritage (Urvich fortress and Pancharevo monastery), as well as Bulgaria's largest rowing base - "Sredets".

St. Petersburg is one of the most beautiful cities in the world. The city was founded in 1703 by Peter the Great. Built on 45 islands, water plays an important architectural feature in the city; it is often referred to as the Venice of the North or the Paris of the East. Within St Petersburg's geometry are a dust devil of influences and styles and a bewitching vortex of life's extremes.More than 500 bridges link the city, varying from narrow traverses such as the Lions and Bank chain bridges for pedestrians to giant drawbridges crossing the Neva River.  St. Petersburg is the second largest city in Russia after Moscow. It is probably the only city in the world to have acquired so much historic importance in so a short a time. St. Petersburg is the only city where the styles of different epochs are so harmoniously fused.From the White Nights festival during the mysterious summer twilight to top theatre and ballet productions and concerts on magical winter evenings, St. Petersburg travel is a focus on the arts of Russia, palaces, cathedrals, fortresses, domes, spires, turrets, sculpture, painting and literature. The city is an open-air museum, with more than 140 museums. The Hermitage is most famous, three million objects collected from a span of ages, movements and nations. The collection represents the vastness of the country and its turbulent history.St Petersburg is also a romantic trip, the endless twilights of the famous White Nights, crowded with visitors who come to experience the dreamy sunset, along with music festivals and cultural events. St. Petersburg travel gives to visitors the option to enjoy sunny summer days, feel the first buds of spring, the delicious and brilliant sun of autumn and the brittle brightness winters.

Domkirke of Stavanger, the oldest cathedral in NorwayStavangeris a city and municipality in the county of Rogaland, Norway.
Stavanger municipality has a population of 126,469.[2] There are 197,852 people living in the Stavanger conurbation, making Stavanger the fourth largest city, but the third largest urban area, in Norway. Stavanger is the centre of the Stavanger metropolitan area, which has a population of 297,569, and the administrative centre of Rogaland county. The city is commonly referred to as the Petroleum Capital of Norway.
Despite its age, dating back at least to the Viking Age, Stavanger only grew to its position among the most important Norwegian cities in the second half of the 20th century, after oil was discovered in the North Sea. Today, the city is marked by noticeable foreign influences as a result of the presence of several major international oil companies. Stavanger also houses the NATO Joint Warfare Center.
Norway's oldest cathedral, Stavanger domkirke, is situated in the city centre, right next to Breiavatnet lake. The two most popular recreational areas are situated around lakes, namely Mosvatnet and Stokkavatnet.

Spread over seven islands, Stockholm enjoys one of the most stunning locations of any capital city in the world. Over 30% of Stockholm is made up of waterways and another 30% of parks and green spaces.The historical streets and well-preserved buildings of the charming Old Town, the first stop for many visitors, contrast with modern Stockholm where locals live and work. Both, however, showcase the flair the Swedes have always had for design - something they have become globally renowned for.During the summer, Stockholm's chic boutiques and stylish pavement cafés overflow with affluent, fashion-conscious people who enjoy the culture and lifestyle that has earned the Swedish capital rave reviews in Europe's style magazines.When the long winter does come, it is not all Nordic gloom. Stockholm has almost as many restaurants per capita as Paris does, as well as 150 or so museums and galleries. Winter brings its own beauty; many of the waterways around Stockholm freeze, making ice skating a popular activity.

Strasbourg is one of France's major ports and is the seat of the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine. It is renowned for its beautiful historical centre, the Grande Île ("Grand Island") which is a UNESCO World Heritage site. At the end of the 19th century Strasbourg became part of Germany, but reverted back to France in 1918. Strasbourg is located on the French border and has a lot of influence of other countries such as Germany, Italy and Spain. The German town across the Rhine is Kehl. Strasbourg is a unique city; it has a combination of French and German culture that is shaped in its ancient buildings and in the architecture of the city. Definitively a very good destination to visit when you are in France. Nice is the capital of the Côte d'Azur and is located on the Mediterranean coast, 929km (577 miles) south of Paris and 32km (20 miles) northeast of Cannes. It is the largest city between Genoa and Marseille. Nowadays, Nice is a major tourist centre and a leading resort on the French Riviera and famous for its wonderful attractions and sights. The seafront of Nice is one of the most beautiful on the Mediterranean coast, as well as, the Old Town with its crowded bars and cafés. Nice also has many attractions, such as museums and cathedrals from ancient times. Strasbourg is the capital of the Alsace region of France and is located in the Rhine valley, 488km (303 miles) southeast of Paris and 217km (135 miles) southwest of Frankfurt. It has a population of approximately 650,000 inhabitants and hosts some important European institutions such as the Council of Europe, the European Court of Human Rights, the European Ombudsman, the European Parliament and others.
Many artists once lived in Nice. Among them were Nietzsche, Apollinaire, Flaubert, Victor Hugo, George Sand, Stendhal, Chateaubriand, Picasso, and Mistral. Some people say it's the famed local light that has always made Nice a venue for artists. With its close to 300 days of sunshine a year. Nice has become famouse for its sunshine, but remember in summer it can be a very suffocating city. Nice has a rich history and fascinating landscapes. It is a very visited city and receives a great number of tourists each year. Some of its buildings have a baroque style and some others have Provençal, medieval and Genoese architecture. It is also easily accessible to nearby destinations, such as Antibes, Monaco, St Tropez and the Provence region.

Tallinn
An ancient Hanseatic city and the capital of Estonia, Tallinn has a wealth of historical and architectural monuments, particularly in the old town centre which is dominated by the soaring steeple of the medieval Town Hall (14th to 15th centuries), the oldest in northern Europe. More than two-thirds of the original City Wall still stands and a superb view of the narrow streets, the gabled roofs and the towers and spires of old Tallinn is afforded from Toompea Castle, situated on a cliff top.
The city's old town has been astonishingly well preserved and was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1997, it is now in better shape than ever, with the bigger roads converted into fashionable shopping streets reminiscent of Zürich or Geneva. Especially in summer, the Old Town is packed with tourists, with the traditional day-trippers from sister city Helsinki increasingly supplemented by Europeans taking advantage of cheap flights.
Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, a classic onion-domed 19th-century Russian Orthodox church that has become a touristy symbol of the

Tartu
Estonia’s second-largest city lies about 176 km (110 miles) from Tallinn on the Emajõgi River. The city has a very old university and other sights include the Vyshgorod Cathedral (13th to 15th centuries), the Town Hall (18th century) and the university’s Botanical Garden.

People living in The Hague can choose between spending a day at Scheveningen beach, theme park Duinrell, family park Drievliet of Madurodam. The latter is famous for showing the whole of Holland in miniature.The Royal Residence, The Hague, is home to many beautiful and historic squares. This article only discusses the top 6 squares located in the city center, which are within ten minutes walking distance from each other.
Binnenhof
‘Het Binnenhof’ has been the political heart of the Netherlands for centuries. The buildings of Het Binnenhof, such as the ‘Ridderzaal’ (Hall of Knights), the First and Second Chamber of Parliament and the Prime Minister’s ‘little tower’ are well worth your time.
Buitenhof
‘Het Buitenhof’ is situated next to ‘Het Binnenhof’ and is a great place to enjoy a drink or a bite to eat. In
summertime you can sit outside at one of the many outdoor cafés. There’s also a cinema, in case you’re in for a movie.
Het Plein
Also situated next to ‘Het Binnenhof’, but on the other side, is ‘Het Plein’. This historic square offers grand
buildings and many lunchrooms and restaurants during the daytime. At night, however, the same venues transform in cafes and clubs. Het Plein is one of the main nightlife hotspots in The Hague.
De Plaats
‘De Plaats’ is one of the smaller squares in The Hague. It is located opposite the ‘Hofvijver’ and is a mixture of restaurants, lunchrooms and shops. Many historical events took place on this square as it is next to the former
Gate Prison.
Het Lange Voorhout
You can make dozens of great pictures throughout the year at the ‘Lange Voorhout’. The most characteristic features are the linden trees, the majestic Hotel Des Indes and the former royal palace, which is home to the Escher collection these days. In spring thousands, of crocuses bring color to the square.
De Grote Markt
Throughout the centuries the market square of The Hague has transformed into a grand outdoor café  surrounded by bars and clubs. From early in the morning, until late at night you’ll find people having a good time here. In the summertime, the ‘Grote Markt’ is often home to musical events.

Toulouse is located 705km (438 miles) southwest of Paris, 245km (152 miles) southeast of Bordeaux, and 97km (60 miles) west of Carcassonne. It is the fourth-largest city in France and is the gateway to the Pyrenees mountain range. It is an agricultural market centre, and an aero-research centre and one of the great cities for French art (It has seven fine museums). The food in Toulouse and in the rest of the Midi Pyrenees region could be rated among France's most celebrated. This city is situated half-way between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea and had a population of about 1.1 million inhabitants in 2006. Toulouse is well known because it's the high-tech centre of the aerospace industry in Europe. It hosts the headquarters of Airbus S.A.S. and the National Center for Space Research, which has had its headquarters here for more than 3 decades. Toulouse is a very beautiful city with a lot of buildings of architectural importance, gardens and squares. It is also a culture venue as a result of being the centre of Europe's aerospace industry and space programme. Toulouse was once the capital of the Visigoths and later became the centre of the comtes de Toulouse (counts of Toulouse).Avignon is also called the second Rome because of the arrival of the Popes in the 14th Century during the Babylonian captivity. It was also the residence of several antipopes from 1378 to 1408. After a plebiscite it was incorporated to France into 1791. Avignon is a city full of history, and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Avignon is the capital of the Vaucluse department, located in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, with a population of approximately 85,935 people. The name of this city comes from the Celts, who called the area The Avenio which means the Town of Violent Winds. The era of the Popes, from 1376 to 1409, is the most important and significant in Avignon's history, seven Popes took Avignon as their official residence, and they were:

Trondheim  historically, Nidaros and Trondhjem, is a city and municipality in Sør-Trøndelag county, Norway. With a population of 173,486, it is the third most populous municipality and city in the country, although the fourth largest metropolitan area. It is the administrative center of Sør-Trøndelag county. Trondheim lies on the south shore of the Trondheimsfjord at the mouth of the river Nidelva. The city is dominated by the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), SINTEF, St. Olavs University Hospital and other technology-oriented institutions.
The settlement was founded in 997 as a trading post, and was the capital of Norway during the Viking Age until 1217. From 1152 to 1537, the city was the seat of the Archdiocese of Nidaros; since it has remained the seat of the Diocese of Nidaros and the Nidaros Cathedral. It was incorporated in 1838. The current municipality dates from 1964, when Trondheim merged with Byneset, Leinstrand, Strinda and Tiller

The City of Turku emerged on the banks of Aurajoki river and the inhabitants still define places based on whether they are on "this" or "the other" side of the river. Strangely enough, this definition does not depend on which side you happen to be on. The older east side is "this" and the newer west side "the other". The sights to see on the eastern bank include the cathedral, the Sibelius Museum, the home museum Ett Hem, the Old Town Centre, the Aboa Vetus & Ars Nova museum, the Luostarinmäki Handicrafts Museum, the Municipal Theatre of Turku and the Wäinö Aaltonen Museum of Art.

Cross the bridge or take the free Föri ferry to the west bank, where the main attractions include the Turku Castle, Forum Marinum maritime centre and its museum ship fleet (including the full-rigger Suomen Joutsen), as well as the Pharmacy Museum and Qwensel House. Closer to Market Square, there is the recently renovated Turku Art Museum, the Market Hall and the magnificent Main Library.

Seafaring for beginners
You don't have to be an avid sailor with experience of sailing the Seven Seas to fully enjoy the uniqueness of the Turku Archipelago. Among the world's largest – and to some among its most beautiful – the archipelago is accessible by foot, bike, connecting vessels, ferries, car or waterbus.

The easiest and quickest way to the Turku Archipelago is to take a cruise departing from the Aurajoki river in Turku. If you prefer more than a day-trip, the Archipelago Ring Road circles the entire archipelago. The route can be completed clockwise and anticlockwise leaving the mainland from either Kustavi or Pargas.

The Turku Archipelago is all about rugged untouched nature, but it also hides surprising oases where you can relax with a round of golf, a spa visit or satisfy the gourmand in you. The local cuisine is high quality and very respected. Look for restaurants with the Skärgårdssmak sign to make sure you enjoy an authentic, delicious quality meal.

Uppsala [1] is a university city in Uppland province in Svealand, south central Sweden. With a population of 158,000 (200,000 in the municipality), it is the fourth largest city in Sweden. The two universities dominate the city, so there are lots of young lively people everywhere. It holds Scandinavia's largest cathedral, originally constructed in the 1200s, which is open for visitors.

The ultimate symbol of the city of Utrecht is its 112-meter-high Dom Tower. Climb the 465 steps and enjoy the magnificent views! Museum Speelklok has a spectacular collection musical clocks and organs. The colorful flower market is held every Saturday on ‘Janskerkhof’.
Utrecht has eight fortresses, which no longer serve a military purpose. Located in areas of scenic beauty, the
fortresses are a sight to be seen. The fortresses of Utrecht are a part of the New Dutch Waterline. This was a strip of land which, when flooded, made up a defense line. The main part of the New Dutch Waterline lies in the province of Utrecht and around the city of Utrecht.
Fortresses and SceneriesThe local tourist information office (VVV) has several tours and package deals that allow you to discover the fortresses of Utrecht. You can walk, cycle, skate and canoe along the fortresses or book a package deal including a boat trip and a high tea. Whatever you prefer the historical fortresses and the nature Asurrounding them won’

Vaduz is the capital city of Liechtenstein and has a population of 5,005.

Vaduz is the capital of Liechtenstein, but not its largest city: Schaan is slightly larger. Still, it's home to the Prince's castle and his museums, and thus the main point of interest for visitors to this small country which is a shame because it is a rather disappointing hodge-podge of unattractive modern buildings, cranes and farmland. It may technically be a European capital but it is unlikely to interest a tourist for any length of time.

Valencia is the third largest city in Spain, and the birthplace of the most traditional of Spanish dishes (paella) Valencia Spain is the perfect base from which to explore any number of Mediterranean beaches along the Costa Blanca, catch a ferry for Ibiza, or just wander through the city’s open air markets and explore its Gothic architecture. Around Valencia travel can sometimes be congested, yet the city itself has managed to retain the feeling of a small town. This is due to the serene plazas and tree lined avenues that make Valencia in Spain one of the most picturesque and easily maneuverable cities in Europe. More than the layout, however, it is the friendly and fun loving Valencianos that make tourists and tired travelers feel welcome. And though little English or French is spoken in the city (as compared with Barcelona and Madrid), the street vendors, hotel managers, and waiters are invariably eager to help you practice your stumbling Spanish. Valencia Spain is located in the eastern Levante region. This area boasts some of the most fertile soil in Europe. This soil, or huerta, produces oranges in abundance, and the best rice in Spain. It is no wonder, then, that paella—a richly seasoned, rice-based dish traditionally cooked in flat pans the size of bicycle tires over open fires—originated at Valencia in Spain. During your stay in Valencia travel through the maze-like Bario del Carme ocated between the Calle de Caballeros and the Rio Turia, or visit any of the happening night spots or sidewalk cafes that provide a perfect place to enjoy a cup of the super-sweet Valencian hot chocolate. Valencia is at its best during the festival season. And the best festival of the season is the Fiestas de Las Fallas. From March 12 to 19 the city erupts in a blaze of fireworks, music, bullfighting and general madness. According to tradition, each of Valencia’s barrios, or neighborhoods, builds a satirical effigy of papier mache. These giant caricatures are then paraded through the streets, judged, and set afire at midnight on March 19. Throughout the week the city is a wonderfully chaotic mix of fireworks—seemingly exploding at your feet with every step—paella eating, and afternoon bullfights. During the week you can check the Valencia tourist information kiosks around town for a daily schedule of events. Cheap flights to Valencia are available in the off season (November through April excluding weekends). Check the internet for off season specials and up-to-date Valencia tourist information. Also keep your eyes peeled for last minute flights during the festival season, as airlines will drastically reduce fares for travelers willing to depart at the last minute during the holiday season. Otherwise, cheap flights to Valencia are available if you book early. If you are traveling from France or Italy, however, the best and most scenic option is to catch a high speed train.
Awash in year-round Mediterranean sun, the weather in Valencia remains warm and dry during the summer and mild in the winter. Because of the temperate weather in Valencia, and the seemingly endless festival season, it is always a good time to visit this wonderful and welcoming city

Valletta
The capital of Malta has been built on a peninsula in the central eastern part of Malta and has a population of just over 6000 people. Valletta is named after the French Grandmaster Jean Parisot De La Valette who headed the defence of Malta from the Ottoman invasion in 1565. The entire city of Valletta has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Valletta boasts many buildings from the 16th century, mostly baroque architecture that was built by the Knights of St. John. Amongst them is the majestic St. John’s Cathedral, several auberges that hosted the Knights in their times, the bastions surrounding the city, and several gardens. In fact, one could say that Valletta is actually a monument donated by the Knights.

Nowadays, Valletta hosts the National Parliament, the Law Courts, many Government Ministries and Departments, Administrative Offices, museums and plenty of shopping opportunities. The streets have a grid-like shape, so one could never really get lost while navigating through this open air museum.

The city is busy by day, but the  Upper & Lower Barrakka gardens offer a calm spot with incredible views of the Grand Harbour. Then as the sun sets, Valletta calms down and turns into a magic fortified city where the architecture stands out under the gentle lighting. Yet, with plenty of cafes, wine bars, theatres, exhibitions and other cultural events from time to time, Valletta is a living city all year long.

Vienna will surprise you: the strains of Mozart and hip-hop music co-exist, while a stone's throw from the grand dames and their miniature dogs in traditional coffee houses are the hip new cutting-edge bars and cafés.

Vienna today is a beguiling mix of old and new, perhaps best illustrated by the new MuseumsQuartier cultural district. Here the courtyard of the old Spanish riding stables, featuring the city's largest baroque facade, is now home to contemporary museum architecture.

For most, Vienna is classical music, imperial history and monumental architecture, for others it is forever linked with The Third Man and its haunting Harry Lime Theme.

The capital of Lithuania, Vilnius is the biggest and most beautiful city in the country. Vilnius was first mentioned in 1323 in the letters of Lithuania’s great ruler Grand Duke Gediminas, who invited craftsmen and merchants from all over Europe to settle here. Today it is a modern city with 542,000 citizens. The city has a stunning array of Baroque and Gothic architecture and one of the largest Old Towns in Central and Eastern Europe, which takes up 360 hectares and is on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
Vilnius University was founded in 1579 and is one of the oldest universities in Eastern Europe. The library holds over 180,000 old manuscripts, rare editions and other publications and holds one of Europe’s biggest collections of maps.
The symbols of Vilnius are the Upper Castle on Gediminas Hill, built many centuries ago, and the Cathedral on the city’s main square. The Cathedral is the main sanctuary for Catholics in Lithuania, but it is also a graceful piece of Classical architecture. By 2009, Lithuania’s millennium, the Lower Castle, built originally in the 16th century, will have been re-erected next to the Cathedral after extensive renovation.
St. Anne’s Church (16 cent.) is a masterpiece of Gothic architecture famous for its intricate and beautiful facade ornamented with red-brick twists and turns and three graceful towers. Next to St. Anne’s stands the ensemble of St. Francis’ and Bernadine Church, the latest discovery at which are several frescoes hidden from view for several centuries under a layer of plaster. They are now being restored.
The Gates of Dawn on the edge of the Old Town is one of the most renowned sacred places for Catholics around the world. The focus is the Chapel in the Gates of Dawn and its miraculous 17th century icon of the Blessed Virgin Mary. In the 20th century, the image of Mary was named the Mother of Mercy, and inside the Cathedral Basilica of St. Peter and Paul in Rome a chapel was created in her honour.
The Church of St. Peter and Paul is a masterpiece of Vilnius Baroque. It was built in the 17th century and regularly stuns visitors with its wondrous interior decorations of more than 2,000 sculptures and bas-reliefs.
Vilnius charms every visitor with its romantic atmosphere and stylish cafés, which spill out in summer onto the Old Town’s narrow lanes and pavements. The Old Town and its historical buildings make a perfect scene, especially when seen from Vilnius’ skyscrapers in the bustling new business centre. The Lithuanian capital has several extremely modern and highly popular shopping centres, each of which sells the latest in world fashion.
Lithuanian beer is considered to be the national drink and you shouldn’t miss a chance to try it together with a dish from a distinctive range of national cuisine. Nighttime Vilnius is simply irresistible and can offer any number of adventures in its clubs and bars.
Modern Vilnius is a fast-growing city with a well-developed infrastructure and ambitious future plans. It is the centre of the country’s politics, business, science and culture and attracts an increasingly varied assortment of local and international events. Vilnius is the first among the new members of the EU to become the European Capital of Culture, a title it shares in 2009 together with the Austrian town of Linz.

Vladimir is one of the oldest and most famous cities of Russia. It has a millennial history; according to the latest data discovered by the historians and archaeologists. Vladimir is famous for its unique cathedrals dating back to the XII century. Four of them are included in the UNESCO World Heritage list.The geographical position of Vladimir makes it an attractive place for business development.  Some attractions which you can visit in Vladimir are The Golden Ring of the ancient Russian, The St. Demetrius’ Cathedral, the Cathedral of the Assumption or the Cathedral of the Dormition, the Golden Gate, the Trinity Church, the water Tower, the Church of St. Nicolas and many others tourist attraction that you can visit.But you can see more of Vladimir than only the famous churches and some museums that can tell you a lot about the history of old Russia. The same city provides interesting ideas of the provincial Russian life.Vladimir travel gives to visitors the option to enjoy a memorable touring experience, unforgettable impressions of the inimitable and majestic Vladimir landscape. And the city belongs to the so called "Golden Ring" of Russia and, consequently, presents a major international domestic and international tourism that waits for your visit.

Warsaw is among the greenest metropolises on the continent, with the Europe’s wildest river gushing through the center of the city. During World War II Warsaw was reduced to rubble, nonetheless she was brought back to life and continues flourishing.
[City of Warsaw] City of Warsaw City with the highest 4-faced clock tower in the world. Its four faces are each 6 m in diameter, making this the largest clock of its kind in Europe. It is positioned on one of the youngest, yet one of the most prominent symbols of Socialist architecture – The Palace of Culture and Science.
Paradoxically Warsaw’s Old Town is only fifty years old. After World War II it was proudly and laboriously reconstructed to its present form. In 1980 it was placed on the UNESCO’s list of World Heritage Sites. [City of Warsaw] City of Warsaw
Monumental and lapidarian Socialist realism neighbors the subtle and ethereal Art Nouveau, and modern-glass skyscrapers tower over the apartment buildings.
Every day Varsovians walk by the multitude of commemoration sites, and after work they relax in abundant parks and gardens.
Modern office building designed by the famous architect beautifully blends in with its neighboring Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, which was constructed as the arcade of Saxon Palace.
Monumental district Praga, which for decades was in the shadows of cultural life, is enduring meticulous revitalization, and it is becoming a promised land for the artists and the oasis for the creative undertakings.
There is an absolutely, one hundred percent authentic orchard on the roof of the largest University Library in the city.
There is Hip-hop and all-pervading Fryderyk Chopin whose music you can listen to within ancient walls of the Lazienki Park – where the composer himself used to play. Isn’t it an interesting contrast?
Warsaw is a city full of astonishing varieties and it never ceases to amaze with its magnitude of dimensions and themes, which for the inquirer have to be discovered, absorbed and understood.
One can discover aforementioned Warsaw’s gems, popularly known as tourist attractions, in several different ways. On foot, on the bike, following ancient sites, or Chopin trail, as well as following concerts and festivals contemporary music, club-hopping or pursuing other ambitious artistic events.
There are many ways to fully comprehend Warsaw, get to it better, and many more are waiting to be defined and shared with others.
Everyone will find amusing or entertaining ways to spend time in Warsaw, which should help with understanding this multitude of contrasts and variations that define this spectacular city.
Discover it yourself, because the proverbial door is wide open to anyone interested. This is an invitation!!!

Note that there are two “Yaltas”: Yalta City which is Yalta itself and Bolshaya Yalta (Big Yalta) which includes the Black Sea shore from the village of Foros in the west to Krasnokamenka in the East and is about 70 km in length.
Yalta has a beautiful embankment along the Black Sea; it is Yalta’s main thoroughfare and the centre of all activities.
The Vorontsovsky Palace, located in a 100-acre park and designed by English architect Edward Blore, is a remarkable piece of architecture not to be missed, other must is the Swallow’s Nest, a decorative castle perched on the edge of the Aurora cliff overlooking the sea. Just outside Yalta is the Nikitsky Botanical Garden which boast 50 000 species of plants. The Alexander Pushkin’s cottage and museum in Gurzuf and the Lesya Ukrainka Literature-Memorial Museum are other interesting sights in Yalta.
Architectural attractions include the Church of the Immaculate Conception (built in 1898-1906), Alexander Nevsky Cathedral (built in 1891-1902), Moresque palace of the Bukhara Emir which is now Yalta Sanatorium and the pedestrian Pushkinska Street.
The house where the renowned writer Anton Chekhov lived for five years has been turned into a museum. Another known writer who spent time in Yalta during his youth was Mark Twain.
Yalta enjoys a warm climate similar to the Mediterranean, protected from the north by the mountains and warmed by the Black Sea. The average annual temperature is +13.2°C and the humidity is moderate. In summer months Yalta can get very crowded; in autumns the weather usually is warm and pleasant. Winters are not as cold as the rest of Ukraine.
There is no airport in Yalta, you must fly to the regional capital of Simferopol and then take a car into Yalta. Yalta is 79km south from Simferopol. You should take the Crimean Trolleybus line which departs from the Simferopol train station via Alushta to Yalta; this is the longest trolleybus route in the world. Additionally, you can take a train from Odesa (12 hours) or from Kyiv (18 hours) to reach Yalta.
Yalta is visited by a large number of tourists; most of them are Ukrainian, Russian and German. The crime rate is low compared to the west, Yalta is a safe place for tourists while they follow their common sense.
Yalta, one of the most fascinating cities in Ukraine, is a resort town located on the southern coast of the Crimean Peninsula in southern Ukraine, geographically situated on a deep bay facing south towards the Black Sea and surrounded by wooded mountains.
Yalta is a land blessed with many types of attractions including their lush green landscape, historical monuments, mild climate, and rugged beaches.
The city has several movie theatres, restaurants, cafes, bars, nightclubs, as well as large open-air markets. There are a great number of stores that accept credit cards; ATM machines are also widely available. Yalta is one of the most expensive cities in Ukraine, the average prices are close to Western standards.
English is not widely spoken in Crimea, but it is understood by most young people. Russian is the main language spoken, as well as Ukrainian and Tatar.

The walled medieval city of York, 90 kms northeast of Manchester, is a great place to explore, with narrow streets, lovely shops and timbered homes with gabled roofs.
Don't miss the 14th-century York Minster) and York Castle Museum. Take a walk along the city wall and visit Clifford's Tower, the Yorkshire Museum Jorvik Viking Centre (tour the reconstructed Viking-era town on the exact site where archaeologists found streets, shops, dwellings and other remains—get there early to avoid crowds), the award-winning National Railway Museum and 18th-century Castle Howard, a gold-domed baroque mansion. York is reputed to be the most haunted city in England (tours of spooked locales are given after dark).
The surrounding countryside features the North York Moors and Yorkshire Dales National Parks. 55 kms north of Manchester, the Yorkshire Dales are a world apart. Kilometres of unspoiled countryside, country lanes and stonewalls surround lively market towns, isolated farmhouses, ancient lead mines and great limestone caverns.
This is the middle stretch of the Pennines and is great hiking country for the hale and hearty. The small village of Malham makes a good base if you want to explore this unique limestone countryside, but the market town of Richmond has more of interest, with an 11th-century castle, walking tours and traditional shops..
The fabulous scenery of Yorkshire attracts plenty of four-wheeled visitors, making the roads very crowded, especially during the summer. If you can’t avoid busy summer weekends, try to come by bus or train, and even then
it’s well worth getting off the beaten track.

Zurich (German: Zürich, Zürich German: Züri) is the largest city in Switzerland, with a population of some 364,500 in the city proper and close to 1 million in the agglomeration area. Zurich is on Lake Zurich, where the lake meets the Limmat River, in the north of Switzerland.

Zurich is the largest city of the Swiss Confederation (Switzerland) by land area and population. It is the financial centre of Switzerland and houses the stock exchange and the headquarters of a large number of national and international companies. National and international media agencies as well as most of the national TV channel companies are also located here.

View across Zurich from Grossmünster Because Zurich is the central node of the Swiss-wide train network and also runs the biggest and busiest international airport in the country, it generally is the first place where tourists arrive. Because of the city's close distance to tourist resorts in the Swiss Alps and its mountainous scenery, it is often referred to as the "portal to the Alps".
Contrary to what some believe, Zurich is not the capital of Switzerland-- that honor falls to Berne. Zurich has long been known for being clean and efficient. Due to this, it has been continuously ranked as the city with the highest living standard world-wide for many years. However, only for the last ten years has it truly become a fascinating and worthwhile travel destination. This is mostly thanks to the liberalization of the cultural, party and gastronomy sectors. An increasingly cosmopolitan population has helped, as well, though more button-down Geneva remains Switzerland's most culturally heterogeneous city.

The official language is German, used in all official publications and announcements, and practically everyone can speak it, but the native language of the masses is Swiss German. The most common dialect is called Züritüütsch. English and French are also widely spoken and often used in official publications and announcements alongside German. Any of these languages will do easily. Note that it's often wise to speak German rather than attempting to speak Swiss German; some people may think you're trying to make fun of their language.